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Viticulture > Viticulture COPY > Flashcards

Viticulture COPY Flashcards

1
Q

Most common species of vine

A
  1. Vitis Vinifera
  2. Vitis Labrusca
  3. Vitis Riparia
  4. Vitis Rupestris
  5. Vitis Rotundifolia
  6. Vitis Amurensis
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2
Q

Name parts of vine

A

Tendril

Lateral Shot

Inflorescence

Leaf

Compound bud

Main Shoot

Cane

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3
Q

What is the lenght of stem between nods called?

A

Internod

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4
Q

What does stem transport?

A

Water and solutes (substances dissolved in liquid - minerals and sugars)

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5
Q

Explain compound bud

A

Also called latent bud

Form in one growing season and break open in the next one

Primary bud opens first (followed by secondary or tertiary if necessary)

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6
Q

Explain prompt bud

A

Form and break in the same season and produce lateral shoots

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7
Q

Main functions of lateral shoots

A

Back up if main shoot is damaged.

Additional source of leaves for photosythesis

May have inflorescences (second crop) those ripen later or may be removed.

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8
Q

Explain photosythesis

A

Stomata (pores) open on underside of the leaves letting water diffuse out and carbon dioxide to enter.

Transpiration - transport of water from soil and roots back to leaves

Stomata closes if vine has water stress

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9
Q

Describe composition of grape berry

A

Pulp - water, sugars, acids and some aroma compounds and aroma precursors

Skin - high concentration of aroma compounds and precursors, tannins and colour compounds

Seeds - oils, tannins and embryo for new plant

Bloom - waxy coating of skin

Stem

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10
Q

2 kinds of vine propagations - explain

A

Cuttings - section of vine that is planted and grows as new plant. Can be grafted on selected rootstock and treated in nursery against deseases.

Layering - Establish neighbouring vine’s shoot is buried in the ground. New vine grows on its own roots.

Both methods are geneticaly identical to the parent (vines from seeds are not)

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11
Q

Explain clonal selection

A

Vines with favourable characteristics are propagated in nurseries by cuttings.

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12
Q

Explain mass selection (Selection Massale)

A

Grower takes cuttings from best performing vines in his vineyard and propagate them by cuttings (may graft them on rootstock)

Own unique planting material

Increases diversity

Costly in terms of time and labour

Possible spread of diseases (from parent)

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13
Q

New vines from seeds

Cross X Hybrid

A

Cross - parents from the same species

Hybrid - parents from different species

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14
Q

Dormancy (temperatures, hazards, management)

A

Below 10 degrees

Below -15 degrees hazard of damage or killing vine

Unusual warm can trigger budburst

Winter pruning

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15
Q

Budburst (temperatures, factors, hazards)

A

Temperature above 10 degrees

Continental climate advantageous with large winter/summer difference - uniform budburst

Maritime climate caìn be less synchronized

Other factors: temperature of soil (sand warms up quickly) and grape variety

Hazard of frost and cold days

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16
Q

Reasons of low carbohydrate levels in roots from previous season

A

Excessive leaf removal

Water stress

Mildew infections

High crop loads

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17
Q

Shoot and leaf growth stage (needs)

A

Stored carbohydrates from previous season

Warmth, sunshine, nutrients and water

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18
Q

Petioles

A

Base of leaf stalks where new buds develop

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19
Q

Fruitfullness

A

Number of inflorescenses

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20
Q

Describe pollination

A

Pollen-lade stamens (consisting of anther and filament) are exposed.

The pollen grains are shed and land on the moistened stigma surface

They germinate, each producing pollen tube

Pollen tubes penetrate stigma and then the ovule in the ovary.

Pollen tube delivers the sperm cells which fertilizes the egg in the ovule

Ovule forms up to 4 seeds

The wall of ovary enlarges to form the skin and pulp of the grape

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21
Q

Conditions for successful flowering

(timing, temperatures

A

8 weeks from budburst (temperature dependent)

min 17 degrees

sunlight, nutrients, water

adverse conditions: rain, clouds, cold temperatures

Pollen germination needs temperature of 26-32 degrees

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22
Q

Coulure

A

Grape bunch in which fruit set has failed for high proportion of flowers

Imbalance of carbohydrate levels (low rates of photosythesis - cold, cloudy, hot weather, water stress OR vigorous shoot growth)

Grenache, Malbec, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon are the most susceptible

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23
Q

Millerandage

A

High proportion of seedless grapes in bunch - smaller grapes

lower volume of wine or unequal ripeness

Usually from cold, wet, windy weather at pollination and fruit set

Chardonnay, Merlot are susceptible

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24
Q

Methoxypyrazines

A

contribute to herbaceous aromas/flavours

Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc

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25
Q

Xilem

A

Transport tissue which gets water and nutrients from roots to other parts of plant

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26
Q

Grape berry formation

what is created, what is needed

A

Tartaric and malic acid

Aroma compounds and precursors (Methoxypyrazines)

Tannins

Water intake is high (too much water can triger leaf growth)

Mid water stress speeds up this stage and reduces size of grapes (better quality)

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27
Q

Veraison

A

Colour change

growth slows down for few days (lag phase)

Chlorophyll in skin cells is broken down and grapes start to change colour

Due to the systhesis of anthocyanins

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28
Q

Factors influencing ripening stage

A

Grape variety

Climatic conditions

Management of vine and vineyard (heavy crop loads, excessive shading)

Time of harvest

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29
Q

Ripening stage

A

Sugar and water accumulate

Acid levels fall (tartaric acid is the same, malic acid drops due to use for respiration during ripening - respiration is slower in cooler regions -higher acidity)

Tannins, colour and aroma compounds and precursors develop

Methoxypyrazines levels drops (unless it is cloudy or grapes are too shaded)

Tannins polymerise - soften

Anthocyanins increase with sunshine and temperatures between 15 and 25

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30
Q

Conditions for photosynthesis

A

18-33 degrees

sunlight levels that are above one third of full sunshine

Water stress can lead to stop of photosynthesis

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31
Q

Phloem

A

Tissue which transports sugars from the leaves to other parts of the vine

Transportation by xylem slows down at ripening

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32
Q

Optimal ripeness

A

Balance of sugar, tannin and aroma ripeness

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33
Q

Geen shoot lignification

A

Becoming woody and rigid - from one-year-wood to cane

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34
Q

Optimum temperature for fruit set

A

26-32 degrees

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35
Q

Anthocyanin synthesis

definition and temperatures

A

development of colour

optimum temperature 15-25 degrees

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36
Q

The effects of sunshine

A

Needed for photosynthesis

reduction of methoxypyrazines

accumulation of tannin before veraison and polymerization after

creation of aroma compounds and precursors

increased use of malic acid for respiration - lower acidity levels

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37
Q

terpenes

A

Fruity and floral aromas

Grapey aromas in Muscat

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38
Q

Polymerisation of tannins

A

softening, less bitterness

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39
Q

Influence of latitude

A

Lower lattitudes - more and stronger solar radiation

radiation travels through less atmosphere and falls on larger angle (stronger)

Hours of sunshine during the year are more stable

higher sugar, lowe acidity, riper aromas, higher but riper tannins, more colour intensity

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40
Q

Lattitude for growing grapes

A

Between 30 and 50 on each side of Equator

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41
Q

How much temperature falls each 100m?

A

by 0.6 degrees

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42
Q

Diurnal range

A

difference between day and night temperatures

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43
Q

Effect of altitude

A

Cooling influence in high altitude

Sunshine is more intense in high altitude

Ultraviolet radiation is also greater (promotin anthocyanins and tannin synthesis)

High diurnal range

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44
Q

Effect of diurnal range in high altitude

A

Air absorbs some energy and warmth from the soil and some heat is retained at night.

At high altitude air is thinner and holds less moisture, therefore heat rapidly escapes leading to cool nights.

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45
Q

Slope aspects with the most sun exposure

A

South for nothern hemisphere

North for southern hemisphere

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46
Q

Importance of aspect and steepness of slope

A

Increased importance in higher latitudes because solar radiation hits Earth in low angle.

The slope increases the angle therefore increasing the intensity of heat and light

Extention of growing season

In warm climates it may be desirable to limit the heat - planting on slopes which face away from sun

East facing vineyards benefit from morning sunshine (less moisture, longer hours of vine growth)

Shallower and better drained soils with less nutrients

Shelter from winds, rain and frost

Danger of soil erosion

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47
Q

Effect of proximity of water

A

Water heats up and cools down slower than dry land

Day - water remains relatively cool and lowers the temperature in the area. Cool air from above water is drawn to the land to replace the warm air as it raises, resulting in cool humid afternoon breezes

Night - water retains the warmth and keeps local area warmer

Cold/warm ocean currents

Radiation reflection from the water surface (especially high latitude vineyards)

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48
Q

El Nino

A

Climatic cycle which occurs every 3-7 years

Pacific Ocean becomes warmer and causes a lot of rainfall and risk of hurricanes in South America and California

Pacific Northwest (Washinghton, Oregon) get warmer than average conditions and drought

Australia and Western side of Pacific - warm and drought

La Nina is the oposite

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49
Q

Effect of wind

A

cooling or warming influence

Cooling breezes near to body of water (moderating diurnal range)

Valleys - stronger winds (possibility of funnelling between mountain ranges)

Warm breezes from winds travelling over hot land

Reduction of humidity (fungal diseases)

Increase of evaporation rate (increse of need of water)

Hazard of damage by wind (rows of trees as windbreakers on sides of vineyards)

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50
Q

Soil and temperature

A

Free draining soils (sand, stones) warms up quick in spring - encouraging early budburst and longer growing season (spring frost hazard)

Warm soils encourage root growth (ability to absorb more water and nutrients)

Light coloured soils (chalk) reflect some of energy from solar radiation

Dark coloured soils absorb more energy and re-radiate it when temperatures are cooler (at night)

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51
Q

Mist, fog and clouds

A

Mist is formed by tiny drops of water colecting in the air above ground or water. It is formed when warm air is rapidly cooled, causing water vapour in the air to condense

Regular cloudy weather can slow down sugar accumulation and acid degradation (beneficial in warm climate for early ripening varieties)

Increase humidity - fungal diseases or noble rot

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52
Q

Annual water need for vine

A

500mm in cool climate

750mm in warm climate

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53
Q

What is water in vine needed for

A

For turgidity (so it does not wilt)

Photosynthesis

Regulating temperature

Solvent for nutrients from soil

Healthy growth and ripening

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54
Q

Explain transpiration

A

Water vapour diffuses out of the stomata (pores underside of leafs)

The water loss causes water to be pulled from the soil

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55
Q

Stomata

A

Little pores underside of the leaves which vapour water

Lets carbon dioxide an oxyget diffuse in and out

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56
Q

Over supply or under supply of water

A

Under-supply
stomata closes to save water. Photosynthesis stops, growth stops
Grape shrivelling before harvest (or under-ripe grapes)

Over-supply - vigour (good in spring)
Problem in mid summer as it prolongs and compromise ripening
Excessive shading
Diluting of sugar in grapes before harvest (or even grape splitting)
reduced formation of anthocyanins, tannins and aroma compounds, less tannin polymerisation and higher level of methoxypyrazines
Humid conditions due to poor ventilation

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57
Q

Problems of excessive vegetative growth

A

vigour (good in spring)

Problem in mid summer as it prolongs and compromise ripening

Excessive shading

Reduced formation of anthocyanins, tannins and aroma compounds, less tannin polymerisation and higher level of methoxypyrazines

Humid conditions due to poor ventilation

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58
Q

Water and soil

A

Soil drainage and water retention depends on structure and texture of soil

water logged soils are harmful to wine (reducing the amount of oxigen for roots which slows growth)

Warm soils speed up bud burst (longer season)

Slopes - shalower soil with less nutrients, less water due to run off from the slope, problem with erosion

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59
Q

What is evaporation rate and what does it depend on

A

Amount of traspiration from the wine combined with the evaporation of water from the soil

Depends on temperature, humidity and wind

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60
Q

Nutrients

A

Nitrogen

Potassium

Phosphorus

Calcium

Magnesium

Sulfur, manganese, boron, copper, iron, zinc

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61
Q

Nitrogen

A

Component of proteins and chlorophyll (essential for photosynthesis)

essential for vine growth, impact on vigour and grape quality

High levels - excessive vegetative growth (hindering ripening, fruit shading, poor ventilation)

Low levels - reduced vigour (yellowing of leaves) grapes can be difficult to ferment

Restricted supply procudes higher quality grapes

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62
Q

Potassium

A

Essential for vine growth and water flow

High levels - problems with uptake of magnesium (reduced yields and poor ripening) high potassium in grapes (high pH in wine)

Low levels - low sugar accumulation, reduced yields and poor growth

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63
Q

Phosphorus

A

Important for photosynthesis

(only needed small amount and usually sufficient)

Low levels - poorly developed root system (poor water intake, low yields, reduced growth)

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64
Q

Calcium

A

Important for structure of plant cells and in photosynthesis

Low levels - negative influence on fruit set

65
Q

Magnesium

A

Found in chlorophyll, key role in photosynthesis

Low level - (rare) reduced yields and poor ripening

66
Q

Soil and nutrient availability

A

Nutrients for vine dissolve in water which is then taken up by the roots

Different nutrients are available at different pH levels

Soil texture and nutrient holding capacity (clay - high, sand - low)

Slopes have more shallow soil with less nutrients

Fertilizers, manure, compost

67
Q

Chlorosis

A

Lack of iron

Condition in which leaves turn yellow and photosynthesis stops

68
Q

Explain mineralization

A

Vine cannot take up organic nutrient compounds (manure, compost) but needs inorganic ones.

Soil organisms are feeding on organic material and converting it into inorganic material

69
Q

Texture and structure of soil

A

Texture - proportion of the mineral particles of sand, silt and clay.

Clay - fine texture, effective water holding capacity

Sand - good drainage, poor water retention, easy for roots to grow through

Silt - intermediate size

Loam - moderate proportion of sand, clay and silt

Rocks and pebbles - improve drainage but lower water holding capacity

Structure - how the mineral particles in the soil form aggregates (crumbs) The size, shape and stability is important for drainage, root growth and workability of soil

70
Q

Definition of climate

A

Annual pattern of temperature, sunlight, rainfall, humidity and wind averaged out over several years (generally 30)

71
Q

Climate models

A

Growing degree days (GDD)

The Huglin Index

Mean temperature of the warmest month (MJT)

Growing season temperature (GST)

Koppen’s Classification

72
Q

Growing degree days climate classification

A

Amerine and Winkler (1944)

Substract 10 (temperature below vine cannot grow) from average mean temperature of a month in the growing season.

Multiply by number of days in the month

Make same calculation for each month in the growing season

Add together to get GDD (any months with negative value do not count)

Grouped into 5 zones Winkler Zone I is the coolest

73
Q

The Huglin Index

A

Similar to GDD but the calculation takes into account both mean and maximum temperature and the increased day lenght experienced at higher latitudes

Split into ranges with the most suitable varieties

Widely used in Europe

74
Q

Mean temperature of the warmetst month (MJT)

A

Smart and Dry (1980)

Uses mean temperature of July (or January) as well as measures of continentality, humidity and hours of sunshine.

Divided into 6 bands

75
Q

Growing season temperature (GST) climate classification

A

Mean temperature of the whole growing season

Split into bands

Close to GDD but easier to calculate

76
Q

Koppen’s Classification (climate classification)

A

(1900) Considers both temperature and rainfall patterns (only for temperate zones and not tropics)

Maritime - low difference between summer and winter temperature, even spread of rainfall (Bordeaux)

Mediterranean - low difference between summer and winter temperature, dry summers, wet winters (Napa, Coonawarra)

Continental - extreme difference between summer and winter temperatures, short summers, cold winters, rapidly changing temperatures in spring and autumn (Burgundy, Alsace)

Cool climate - average GST 16.5 or below
Moderate climate - 16.5 - 18.5
Warm climate - 18.5 - 21
Hot climate - more than 21

77
Q

Monoculture advantages and diasdvantages

A

Advantages:
Ability to mechanize
Reduction of competition between other plants
Ability to tend to specific needs of the grape variety planted (irrigation, nutrition level…) to increase yields while reducing costs

Disdavantages
More prone to diseases and pestes - more treatments of protection
Nutrients can be depleated - no ecosystem to replenish them
Residual chemicals - environmental damage

78
Q

Conventional Viticulture

A

Raising production levels

Reducing labour requirements

Mechanization

Chemical inputs

Irrigation

Clonal selection

Monoculture

79
Q

Sustainable viticulture

A

Ecomonic, social and environmental sustainability

Aims to promote natural ecosystems, maintain biodiversity, manage waste, minimise applications of chemicals and energy use, and reduce impact of viticulture on environment.

Encourages in-depth understanding of lifecycle of vine and pests and monitoring weather.

Prevent and predict pest or diseases (fewer applications of chemicals needed)

Integrated Pest Management

80
Q

Integrated Pest Management (IP)

Lutte Raisonee

A

Insights of organic viticulture, but prepared to spray when necessary.

Identifying and monitoring pests, setting preventative measures, evaluating and implementing control options (if prevention was not effective and treshold levels were exceeded)

Reduces cost and vine’s resistance to treatments

81
Q

Sustainable viticulture

advantages and diadvantages

A 
Advantages:
    Attention to economic social and Environmental impact
    Scientific understanding of threats
    minimalisation of interventions
    Cost saving

Disadvantages
Term is not protected and can be used to promote wine without any standards
Nationwide standards can be set too low

82
Q

What is biomass in the soil

A

The total quantity of organisms in a given area or volume

83
Q

Organic Viticulture

A

Seeks to improve soil and range of microbes and animals within it. Therefore increase the health and disease resistane of the vine. Rejects use of synthetic fertilizers, fungicides, herbicides and pesticides.

Application of compost (slow release of nutrients, improved structure, increase of biomass)

Cover crops to combat erosion, improvement of life of the soil, biodiversity, green manure (ploughing them in soil)

Natural fertilizers (animal dung, natural calcium carbonate etc.) restoring natural balance of soil

Monoculture is reduced by cover crops, pranting hedges and islands of biodiversity

Monitoring weather and using copper sulfate and sulfur to combat mildew

Natural predator introduction (Bacillus Subtilis can compete with Botrytis on leaf space)

Sexual confusion - pheromone tags which disrupt mating patterns of insects

84
Q

All certification bodies for Organic viticulture need to be certified by:

A

IFOAM

International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements

85
Q

% of Organicaly grown vineyards in Europe

A

10% in Europe, accounting for 85% in the world

86
Q

Organic viticulture

Advantages and disadvantages

A

Advantages
Central aim of grape grower is health of soil and disease-resistance of vine
Reduction in number of chemical treatments
Saving on cost of synthetic chemicals

Diadvantages
Small reduction in yield
Significant redustion of yield in difficult vintages
Increased reliance on copper sprays - heavy metal build-up in soil
Cost and time expended on certification

87
Q

Biodynamic viticulture

A

Based on Rudolf Steiner and Maria Thun

Organic practises with philosophy and cosmology. Adaptation of practises to coincide with the cycles of planets, moon and stars

Calendar which advise growers on root, leaf, flower, or fruit days to indicate best days for certain activities

Homeopatic remedies ‘preparations’ are used

Increased labour costs

88
Q

Preparations in Biodynamic viticulture

A

500 (horn manure) - stuffing cow manure into horn and burying the horn in soil over winter. Then dug up and content is dynamised (stirring the content into water - creating vortex and then reversing it) so the water memorises the power of the preparation which can then be strayed into soil as homeopatic compost

501 (horn silica) - filling cow horn with silica (quartz) and burying it for 6mths. Then dug up dynamised and strayed into soil

502-507 (compost) - Series of starters which are added to compost to activate it (yarrow, chamomile, nettle, oak bark, dandelion, valerian prepared in different ways - yarrow in deer’s bladder). This assists to the decomposition of compost

Ashing - Spreading ashes of weed seeds or harmful animals to ward off these hazards

Traditional chemicals to spray such as sulfur and copper are also used.

89
Q

Certification body for Biodynamic viticulture

A

Demeter

Organic certification is a baseline

90
Q

Precision VIticulture

A

Makes use of data colleced from the vineyard (soil, vigour, topography, plant growth) to respond to changed from plot to plot.

Data are collected by sensors by plane (remote) or by tractor or harvester (proximal) use of GPS or GIS presents it visualy in form of map.

Interventions in the vineyard such as pruning, treatments, irrigation and harvesting are carried out precisely with the aim of producing best quality and yield, reducing environmental impact and lower cost on treatments.

Large scale viticulture only

Can also identify quality zones

91
Q

Advantages and diadvantages of Precision Viticulture

A

Advantages
Detailed understanding of variations in the vineyard
Ability to tailor a wide range of interventions

Disadvantages
Initial cost and investment
Cost of software and consultancy of trained staff to interpret the data

92
Q

Site selection

A

Question of style, price and quality

Price of land

Implication of topography and location - labour availability, mechanization, access to the vineyard, proximity to towns

93
Q

Soil preparation

A

Checking soil drainage, structure, mineral composition and presence of pests and weeds

Plough pan breaking (impervious layer of soil caused by years of ploughing at the same depth) has to be broken down (subsoiling)

Old roots have to be removed (and burned to avoid deseases)

Farmyard manure, compost and fertilizers may be applied.

pH can be adjusted (too acidic soils are adjusted by Lime - calcium based)

94
Q

Choice of grape variety for establishing vineyard depends on:

A 
Suitability to climate:
    Time of budding
     Duration of annual life-cycle (time of ripening)
    Tolerance of drought
    Resistance to disease
    Winter hardiness
    Vigour
Other factors:
    Style of wine
    Yield
    Cost (ex. Pinot Noir is prone to disease and difficult to grow)
    Law (specific grapes allowed)
    Availability
    Market demand
95
Q

Choice of rootstock

A

Usually hybrids to take advantage of both species

Mainly against Phylloxera

Criteria:
Pests (against nematodes)
Water tolerance (drought, water logged soils, salinity)
Soil pH
Vigour (to take advance on ripening etc.)

96
Q

Rootstock against root-knot nematodes

A

Ramsey and Dog Ridge (Vitis Champini)

97
Q

Rootstock for drought tolerance

A

Hybrids of V. rupestris and V. berlandieri

98
Q

Rootstock for water logged soils

A

Riparia Gloire (V. Riparia

99
Q

Rootstock for high salinity

A

V. berlandieri 1103 Paulsen

100
Q

Rootstock for acidic soils

A

Hybrids of V ruperstris and V. berlandieri

99R and 110R

101
Q

Rootstock for soils with high lime content (high pH)

A

V. berlandieri 41B

102
Q

Low vigour rootstock

A

V riparia 420A and 3309C

advance ripening

103
Q

High vigour rootstock

A

V. rupestris 140R

for unfertile and dry soils

104
Q

Soil health (factors)

A

Structure of the soil (drainage, water-holding capacity, sufficient oxygen, resistance to erosion, ability to allow roots to penetrate to sufficient depth)

Amount of organic matter and humus

Number of living organisms

Amount of available nutrients

105
Q

Nutrition management techniques

A

Fertilizers (organic x mineral)

Soil cultivation

Herbicides (pre-emergence x contact x systemic)

Animal grazing

Cover crops

Mulching

106
Q

2 types of fertilizers

A

Organic
from flesh or composted plant or animal material
Cover crops can be plought in (green manure)
Cheap or free
High in hummus - good for structure and water retention
Organic form provides nutrients for soil organisms which turn it into inorganic form
Requires a lot of labour
Nutrients are available gradually
Expensive to transport and spread

Mineral
Extracted from the ground or chemically manufactured
Single nutrient or package (more tailored)
Already inorganic form (immediately available)
No benefit for soil organisms or soil structure
More expensive but cheaper to transport and spread

107
Q

Explain soil cultivation

+advantages and disadvantages

A

Method of weed control that involves ploughing the soil to cut or disturb the weeds’ root systems

Advantages:
No chemicals
Crops are incorporated into the soils at the same time as removing weeds

Diadvantages:
Repatedly it can damage soil’s structure and ecology by destruction of habitats
It can increase wine vigour as there is no competititon

108
Q

Types of herbicides and their advantages and disadvantages

A

Pre-emergence herbicides

Contact herbicides (kill green parts)

Systemic herbicides (taken in by the leaves and kill the whole plant)

Advantages:
Cheap in terms of labour and machinery
highly effective
less damaging to soil structure than cultivation

Disadvantages:
Risk of poisoning of operator, consumer and environment
Do not encourage vineyard ecosystems
Weeds can become resistant
Can increase vine vigour (no competition)
Not allowed in organic viticulture

109
Q

Advantages and diadvantages of animal grazing

A

Advantages:
No chemicals used
Provide manure
Source of meat

Disadvantages:
Vines must be trained high (risk of eating plant and fruit)
Labour for taking care of animals
Often susceptible to pesticides

110
Q

Cover crops

A

Specificaly planted or allowed to grow to have beneficial effect on the vineyard

Surpress weeds
Improve soil structure
Compete with vine for nutrients and water
Enhance biodiversity
Provide surface to drive on
Can be used as green manure
Must be managed too
No use of chemicals
Not suitable for steep vineyards as slopes are becoming slippery

Usually legumes or cereals

111
Q

Mulching - explain and elaborate on advantages and diasdvantages

A

Spreading of matter onto the vinyard soil to suppress the growth of weeds

Usually straw or bark chips

Advantages:
No use of chemicals
Can reduce water evaporation
Can be ultimately cource of nutrients and hummus (promotes biological activity and structure)

Diasdvantages:
Bulky - expensive to transport and spread
Only effective as thick layer
Can increase vigour too much as there is no competition for water

112
Q

Water sustainability in the vineyard

A

Water efficient irrigation systems and techniques

Monitoring of water levels

Drought resistant varieties and rootstocks

Reducing evaporation (mulching)

Reducing competition (removing weeds)

Increasing humus levels to improve water retention

Promoting growth of roots deep into soil (through cultivation)

113
Q

Types of irrigation

A

Drip irrigation
Positioned far enough from vines to enourage the roots to grow and seek water.
Economic use of water
Possible control to individual rows
Possible to use for fertilizer (fertigation)
Possible on slopes
Installation is relatively expensive
Clean water required
Blocking with algae, minerals, salts, bacteria
Cannot be used as frost protection

Flood irrigation
cheap to instal and maintain
Not so efficient

Channel irrigation
Similar as flood but the water flows in furrows between vine
more effective

Overhead sprinklers
Expensive to instal and maintain (high pressure) but can be used against frost (but not so water efficient)

114
Q

Regulated deficit irrigation (RDI)

A

System of timing and regulating the amount of irrigation so the wine is put under mild to moderate water stress for a specified time within growing season.

Reduces size of berries, better quality, lower yield

115
Q

Canopy management

Explanation and aims

A

Organisation of shoots, leaves and gruit of the vine in order to maximase grape yield and quality

Maximise light interception

Reduce shade within the canopy

Ensure that the microclimate for the grapes is as uniform as possible (even ripening)

Promote balance between vegetative and reproductive functions

Ease mechanisation or manual labour

Promote air circulation (reduce disease)

116
Q

Canopy management and quality

A

Increased sugar levels

Increased tannin levels and greater polymerisation (less bitterness)

Enhanced anthocyanins

Decreased malic acid

Favourable aroma precursors and compounds

Decreased methoxypyraxines (herbaceous character)

117
Q

Effect of under-cropping

A

Vigour of the vine continues during the vine cycle because there is not much fruit to ripen. Growing shoots compete with grapes for sugar and nutriens which negatively affects ripening, resulting in lower quality fruit.

Next year will have low yield because of reduced bud fruitfulness. - vegetative cycle

118
Q

Effect of over-cropping

A

Vine will source carbohydrates from the trunk, cordons and roots (those which are needed for winter), which weakens the vine in future years

119
Q

Other influences of vigour of vine

A

Specific grape varieties

Choice of rootstock

Viruses

Age of vine

120
Q

Explain yield

A

Measure of the amount of fruit produced.

Per vine (kg per vine)

Over area (kg per hectare or tons per acre)

121
Q

Canopy management techniques

A

Site assessment to determine ideal grape variety rootstock vigour, planting density, row orientation

Vine training

Winter pruning

Vine trellising

Overall plant vigour management (nitrogen fertilization, irrigation, cover cropping)

Summer pruning (Shoot removal, shoot positioning, pinching, shoot trimming, leaf removal, crop thinning/green harvesting)

122
Q

Vine density

A

Number of vines that are planted per hectare of vineyard

Influenced by:
Vigour of vine (grape variety, rootstock)
Type of trellising system used
What access is needed between rows
Vines high in vigour need greater within-row spacing to grow and be in balance
Vines grown in dry conditions will need low density so the roots can spread out to search for water
Between-row spacing considered for shading and machinery

123
Q

Row orientation

A

Depends on climatic and logistical factors

North-south provides the most evn sunlight exposure (but west side facing grapes need some extra shading from afternoon sun)

Wind has influence (usually 90’ angle)

Slopes greater than 10’ need to be planted up and down the slope to prevent machinery from slipping

124
Q

What does vine training and trellising depend on

A

Vine vigour - natural resources (water, temperature, nutrients), planting material (rootstock, clone, variety), and presence of disease (viruses lower vigour)

The site’s topography (many trellising systems cannot be used on slopes)

The need for mechanisation

125
Q

Vine training

A

The shape of permanent wood

Cordon - usually spur pruned, takes longer to establish

Head-trained - relatively little permanent wood, spur-pruned or replacement cane-pruned

low trained (to benefit from heat, protection from wind) or high trained (avoid frost, ease labour)

126
Q

Pruning

A

Removal of unwanted parts of the vine

Winter pruning determins the number and location of buds that will form fhoots in the coming season

Spur-pruning - short sections of lignified one year old wood that have been cut to only two or three buds

Easier to carry than replacement cane and can be mechanized

Replacement cane-pruning - longer section of one year old wood with between 8 and 20 buds. Typically laid down horizontally and trellised for support. More complex and requires skilled labour

Number of buds depends on vigour (adjusts balance of growing cycle)

127
Q

Trellising

A

Permanent structures of posts and wires that help to support and position the vine’s shoots

Untrellised vineyards - head trained spur-pruned (bush wines) Simple, easy and inexpensive. Suitable in hot climates for extra shading. Not suitable for mechanization and wet climates (high vigour with thick canopy, too much shade and risk of diseases)

Trellised vineyards

A) Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP) - most common type, most simple. Cordon or head trained. Guyot - replacement cane-pruned wines. (Single or Double Guyot) for wine with low or medium vigour.

B) Complex training systems for vigorous vines. Splitting canopy to reduce shade and maximise light exposure. Horizontally (Geneva Double Curtain or Lyre) or vertically (Smart-Dyson or Scott-Henry)

Large yields or high quality fruit

More difficult to mechanize and manage

128
Q

Summer pruning techniques

A

Enhancing ripening, reducing risk of fungal diseases etc.

Disbudding - late in spring to adjust number of buds to bring vine in balance and remove poorly positioned buds

Shoot removal - infertile or poorly positioned

Shoot positioning - tucking into trellis

Pinching - (cannot be mechanized) removing shoot tips at flowering to improve fruitset

Shoot trimming - cutting shoots to limit growth and reduce canopy thickness to enhance gruit ripening and reduce competition for carbohydrates

Leaf removal - reducing shading and lowering disease risk

Crop thinning (green harvesting) - to increase ripeness, if timed near veraison it enhances ripening. Removing grapes which are the least developed. Reducing yield to comply with law

129
Q

Weather related hazards

A

Drought

Excess of water

Untimely rainfall

Freeze

Frost

Hail

Sunburn

Smoke taint

130
Q

Drought

A

Vine needs min of 500mm in cool climate and 750mm in warm regions per year

Water stress pushes the vine to close stomata to limit water loss. This reduces photosynthesis

Unripe grapes, lower yealds

Management options:
Irrigation
Rootstock - V. rupestris and V. berlandieri (110R and 140R)
Drought resistant varieties

131
Q

Excess of water

A

Too much vegetative growth - too much shading, less ripeness, fungal diseases

Water logging - reducing amount of oxygen available for roots

Planting on slopes, on free-draining soils, investing in drainage system

132
Q

Untimely rainfall

A

During pollination and fruit set can cause millerndage or coulure.

Mid season can reduce rate of ripening of fruit

Around harvest can make the grapes swollen - diluted flavours, splitting, grey rot, difficulty for harvesting

Options: monitoring weather, considering early harvest

133
Q

Freeze

A

Temperature below -20 are critical

Grafts are the most in danger

Management options:
Site selection - hillsides rather than valley floors
Moderating influence near water bodies
Vineyards where snow settles most thickly thick layer protects the vine
Resilient varieties such as Riesling and Cabernet Franc
Hybrids for extreme conditions
Hilling up (building soil around graft)
Burrying vines
Vines with several trunks to create space for replacement.

134
Q

Frost

A

Cold air collects at ground level, freezing water in the vine’s growing buds and shoots.

Advective frost - caused by large volumes of cold air moving from cold aread

Radiative frosts - result of heat being lost on still cool nights

Reducing risk
Site selection - avoiding frost pockets
Delaying prning postpones budburst into warmer months
Late budding varieties
High trained vines
Bare soil between vines - bare soil collects heat and radiate it back at night

Fighting frost
Water sprinklers - as water freezes around the plant it releases latent heat, protecting plant
Wind machines - pull warm air from above to ground lavel
Oil or propane gar burning heaters or wax candles

135
Q

Hail

A

Rockets (seeding clouds with iodide to cause rainfall instead of hail)

Netting (but this also causes shading)

Number of different plots in other areas to reduce risk

Insurance against hail

136
Q

Sunburn

A

Grape transpiration is more limited and less effective than transpiration of leaves. Grapes can reach higher temperatures than leaves and become burnt

Leads to scars and splitting, fungal diseases, off flavours, bitter taste

Management options:
    Row orientation and aspect
    Canopy management to provide shading
    Additional irrigation during heatwaves to reduce water stress
    Agricultural suncreen spray
    Shading with cloth or net
137
Q

Smoke taint

A

Smoky or plastic aromas in wine

Increases in period after veraison

Compounds of smoke bind with sugars and are released with fermentation then increase with maturation and ageing in bottle

Management option:
Analysis
Hand harvesting, gentle pressing, lower fermentation temperatures, reduced maceration reduce uptake of these compounds
Flash detente and reverse osmosis can help but not remove it completely
Blending with unaffected grapes to dilute it

138
Q

Pests

A

Phylloxera

Nematodes

Grape moths

Spider mites

Birds

Mammals

139
Q

Phylloxera

A

Identified in 1863 and destroyed two-thirds of Europe vineyards

Small insect which feeds on and lays eggs on the roots of vines. It weakens vine roots and causes swellings and cracks, which then lead to rot.

It can spread by crawling and flying and is commonly transported by humans on roots of young vines, in soil, on equipment

Symptoms:
Vines die of drought in patches which increase in size each year
Roots are covered with insects surrounded by yellow eggs
Swellings on older roots
Pale green leaf galls on under the surface
Slow stunted shoot growth ad leaf yellowing appears in around 3 years, the plant dies after around 5 years

Management options:
Does not survive on sandy soils
American species such as V. berlandieri, V. riparia, V. rupestris form hard corky layers that surround te eggs, sealing the wounds and preventing invasion by bacteria or fungi
European vines grafted on American rootstocks
American rootstock has low tolerance to lime which lead to creating of hybrids of more species

140
Q

Nematodes

A

Tiny worms, very common in soil but too small to be seen by naked eye. Feeding on vine roots, significantly reducing yield and vigour. Transmit viral diseases.

Most common root-knot nematode and dagger nematode

Spread by unclean nursery stock, irrigation, vehicles. Once present, they can only be managed not eliminated

Management options:
Soil analysis in laboratory
Leaving the soil fallow for number of years
Fumigate soil
Plough in a cover crop of mustard plant which works as biofumigant, killing nematodes
Nematode-resistant rootstock

141
Q

Grape moths

A

Feeding on flowers and grapes. Many species have several generations per season

The wounds created are vulnerable to further attack from bacteria and fungi including botrytis

Light brown apple moth (Australia)
European grapevine moth
Grape berry moth

Management options:
Introduction of bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis which produces substance that is toxic to moths
Use of pheromone capsules to disrupt mating
Natural predators (parasitic wasps, green lacewings, some spider species)
Insecticides

142
Q

Spider mites

A

Pacific spider mite (California)

Red Spider mite and yellow spider mite (Europe)

feed on surface sells of leaves, which leads to discoloration of leaves and reduction in photosynthesis, delayed ripening, reduction in yields.

They thrive in dusty conditions

Management option:
Use of sprinklers, cover crops, mulches to reduce dust
Encourage predatory mites
Pesticides

143
Q

Birds

A

Physical damage to grapes and threat of bacteria and fungi which can lead to rot

Netting

Bird scarers and noises

Falcons

144
Q

Fungal diseases

A

Powdery mildew

Downy mildew

Grey rot

Eutypa dieback

Phomopsis cane and leaf spot

Esca

145
Q

Powdery mildew

A

Introduced in Europe in mid 1800.

Caused by fungus Erysiphe necator (Oidium tuckeri) American species are less vulnerable

Common for Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon (Pinot Noir and Riesling are less prone)

Overwinters in buds and on canes. Then attacks young green parts of vine, which starts with dull grey patches and become black patches. Reducing yield. Grapes can laso split at veraison and become target for other infections

Optimum temperatures are around 25 degrees and shade. Does not require high humidity so can spread in dry conditions as well.

Management options:
Keeping open canopy
Application of sulfur
Fungicides (but fungus can become resistant)

146
Q

Downy mildew

A

Caused by Peronospora, a water mould that lives within vine tissue not on the surface. Introduced from America in late 1800

Attacks especially young green parts and reduces yield by defoliating

Needs rainfall and warm temperatures around 20 degrees

Yellow circular oil spots and then white downy fungal growth on the underside of leaves

Management options:
Bordeaux mixture (sopper sulfate and lime)
Other fungicides
Good drainage and open canopy

147
Q

Grey rot

A

Botrytis cinera, loss of yield and quality.

Affcted fruit should be selected out at harvest.

Grapes are vulnerable if there is any point of entry

The most susceptible are tight bunch varieties such as Semillon, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir

Managing options:
Selecting varieties with small grapes and thick skins
Keeping open canopy and removing leaves around bunches
Traditonal sulfur and copper sprays are ineffective
Other fungicides (but develops resistance)
Antagonistic bacteria - Bacillus subtilis

148
Q

Eutypa dieback

A

Dead arm

Fungal trunk disease that leads to rotten wood and can affect whole vineyards. Kills vines over 10 years.

Spores are spread by wind. Infection occures through pruning wounds especially during rain.

Most susceptible varieties: Grenache, Cabernet Sauvignon, Sauvignon Blanc

Management options:
Puning late and applying fungicide to pruning wounds
Affected trunk can be cut back 5-10cm beyond visible symptoms and treated with fungicide. Dead wood must be burt
Biological control - Bacillus subtilis
If the trunk is badly affected the options are to retrain from sucker (sprout at the base of the trunk) or replanting.

149
Q

Phomopsis cane and leaf spot

A

Infected canes whiten and break off easily.

Grenache is very susceptible

Management options:
Fungicides
Diseased wood should be burnt
Pruning early or late and not in rainy weather

150
Q

Esca

A

Complex fungal disease caused by group of oranisms prevalent in warmer and drier climates.

Enters the vine through pruning wounds. Symptoms are tiger-striping of leaves and spotting inside the wood.

Reduces yield and leads to death within few years

Management options:
No chemical control
Prevention - disease-free stock, not pruning in the rain, desinfecting pruning wounds.

151
Q

Bacterial and virus diseases

A

Bacterial diseases
Pierce’s disease
Grapevine yellows

Viruse diseases
Fanleaf virus
Leafroll virus

152
Q

Pierce’s disease

A

Originated in America

Spread by sharpshooter insect

Quickly kills vines. Lives in sap channels of vines which it clogs, leaging to shrivelling and dropping leaves and death within one to five years

Chardonnay and Pinot Noir especially vulnerable

Management options:
    No chemical control
    Reducing number of vectors
    Introducing predators - wasps
    Strict quarantine rules
    Developing Pierce's disease resistant vines
153
Q

Grapevine yellow

A

Group of diseases spread by vectors (leafhoppers) and untreated stock from nurseries.

Symptoms: delayed budburst, drooping posture because new shoots fail to become woody, canopy turning yellow or red (in black varieties).

Can live in cover crops as well

Chardonnay and Riesling the most vulnerable

Reduced yields and lower quality (high acidity and low sugar)

Management options:
No control
Controlling vector
Best practise in nursery

154
Q

Fanleaf virus

A

Group of diseases.

Early leaf growth is stunted canes grow in distorted ways and leaves are very pale and malformed.

Caused by dagger nematode

Cabernet Sauvignon most suceptible

Management options:
No cure, affected vines have to be removed and soil tested

155
Q

Leafroll virus

A

Group of diseases

Does not kill vines but reduses yield and quality (high acidity, less colour and lower sugar)

Slows down growth of shoots and roots.

Management options:
Vines have to be tested in lab
No cure - removing unproductive vines
Open canopies to reduce pest

156
Q

Measurig ripeness before harvest

A

Sugar levels - handheld refractometer (harvested between 19 and 25 Brix which converts to 11-15% abv)

Aroma and tannin ripeness - determined by taste

Titration can be used to calculate acid levels

pH of the juice

157
Q

Machine harvesting

A

Quality can be raised by:
Selecting undesirable fruit by hand before machine harvesting
Optical sorting devices and cruishing system with SO2 already on the harvester
Sorting at arrival to winery

Advantages:
Faster and cheaper
Avoids issues with availability of workers
Can be harvested in night - preventing microbial spoilage and oxidation
Saves cost of refrigeration
Timing of the harvest is flexible

Disadvantages:
Less gentle (some juice is released and berries crushed)
Not economic for small scale
Not suitable on slopes
Competition for rental of harvester in the best time to pick

Substantial initial investment in harvester

158
Q

Hand harvesting

A

Advantages:
Pickers can be highly selective
Possible on steep slopes, irregular rows and mixed plantings
Crushing grapes is avoided if handled gently

Disadvantages:
More expensive
Carried in day light - risk of microbial spoilage and oxidation
Labour availability
Not suitable for whole bunch fermentation and sparkling wine or botrytised wine

Viticulture (1 decks)

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