Viticulture Flashcards

Question

Approximately how many inches of rain does a crop require annually?

Answer 1

20-30 inches.

Answer 2

When a vine receives too little rain, a condition that promotes smaller berry size and yields but will lead to interrupted ripening and complete shut down of the vine if the stress is too severe.

Answer 3

It will dilute fruit quality and creates a friendly environment for fungal diseases.

Answer 4

“Total natural growing environment“ Jancis Robinson -favorite definition to date -The set of variables that characterize a particular place, encompassing everything from soil to slope to wind to the amount of sunlight a vineyard receives during the day. Terroir is the entire system of factors that influence the development of the vine--factors that, depending on the style of viticulture and wine-making applied, may be magnified or subsumed in the resulting wine.

Answer 5

Degree and direction of a slope.

Answer 6

Winter pruning Leaf removal Shoot positioning Use of trellising systems.

Answer 7

identical genetic reproductions of a single vine.

Answer 8

``` Disease resistance Hardiness Yield Aromatics Structure Color ```

Answer 9

Clonal selection is the practice of selecting a single superior plant in the vineyard and then taking cuttings from this vine for propagation. -In mass selection, a group of superior vines are selected for propagation. With mass selection, the identity of individual vines is not maintained, which is the principal difference between the two approaches. While the results may be less precise than those gained through clonal selection, a broader genetic diversity is maintained

Answer 10

V. riparia, V. rupestris (St. George), and V. berlandieri

Answer 11

- to withstand other diseases and drought - tolerance to salt and lime - its effect on vine vigor.

Answer 12

Not till it's third year.

Answer 13

Sixth year.

Answer 14

50 years of age.

Answer 15

Cordon trained- Vine has at least one permanent cane that extends from the trunk, called an arm or cordon. Require a trellising system Head trained-No permanent cordon, and the trunk ends in a knob, or head. Head trained vines may be supported by a simple stake, or not at all. Although head-trained vines may technically be trellised (i.e. the Guyot training system), head-training is commonly asserted as an alternative to trellising, synonymous with bush vines.

Answer 16

Spur pruning is a form of winter vine pruning whereby the canes are cut back to two-bud spurs. Normally the spurs are spaced along a cordon top and point upwards. The cane furthest away from the cordon is completely removed, the one nearest is shortened to two nodes to produce next years spur, providing sufficient quantity of fruit. - it is common to see in warmer climate growing regions, including California, Washington, and Spain. - Spur pruning is a more traditional training method. - - Advantages: Spurs (the stub of a cane that contains 1-3 buds) are generally easier to prune by hand and the operation can also be mechanized easily. Certain training systems, such as goblet method, are ideal for areas prone to drought and known to produce outstanding old vine wines. Also, setting the spur spacing results in the correct shoot spacing in the canopy, which in turn leads to well-exposed leaves and fruit. - Disadvantages: it is not particularly well suited to very vigorous vineyards, however, as excessive shade can lead to the loss of both yield (due to low bud fruitfulness) and quality.

Answer 17

- Cane pruning (Guyot) is a form of winter vine pruning in which the buds are retained on longer bearers called canes, typically including six to 15 buds; typically used for vines with fewer fruitful buds at the base of canes. At pruning the two year old cane, and consequently much of this years growth, are completely removed. Of the two canes originating from the spur, the one closest to the cordon is pruned to leave a replacement two node spur, whereas the cane further away is left intact, although shortened. This is next years two year old cane. - it is especially used in cool-climate wine regions including Burgundy, Sonoma, and Oregon. - By limiting the vine’s lignified growth (the hard brown part) to just the trunk, the vine is less vulnerable to frost and better protected than spur pruned vines. - usually takes longer to perform by hand than the spur pruning, as it requires manually cutting back nearly all the vine’s prior growth and correctly selecting a single cane (or two) that will be responsible for next season’s production. - the tendency in warmer wine regions is to use spur pruning, which can be equally productive, requires less labor, and can be mechanized.

Answer 18

A new growth or fruiting cane (which will harden to become a woody cane) consists of a stem with leaves and tendrils which become bunches of grapes. Collectively, the shoots and leaves of a vine form its canopy.

Answer 19

Shortened grapevine cane. A spur is a stub formed by pruning the cane to between one and four nodes, usually two.

Answer 20

The Guyot system requires a vertical trellis on which the canes can be suspended, and has one spur and one main two-year-old cane. The Guyot double variant supports two main canes, extending outward from the trunk on opposite sides. It is the most basic of cane-pruning/head-training systems.

Answer 21

An ancient technique common in the Southern Rhône and Southern Italy, wherein the vine, often unsupported, resembles a goblet, with each year’s fruiting canes extending from the spur-pruned, shortened arms atop the trunk. In Italy the Gobelet system is known as albarello; in Spain, en vaso. Australians often refer to such vines as bush vines It is the simplest form of spur-pruning/head-training.

Answer 22

The Cordon de Royat system is similar to the Guyot system, with a single spur-pruned permanent cordon extending horizontally from the trunk, rather than a two-year-old cane. It is one of the simplest spur-pruned/cordon-trained systems and the preferred training style for Pinot Noir in Champagne.

Answer 23

It is a vine-training system whereby the canopy is divided into two pendent curtains, trained downwards from high cordons or canes. The system was developed in upstate New York in the early 1960s. The foliage is trained downwards from these cordons, forming the so-called double curtains. This training system was one of the first examples of a divided canopy developed in the New World and, by reducing shade, it increases both yield and grape quality, although it offers very little vine protection. The GDC system is particularly useful for wide row spacing vineyards of high vigour. Some notable increases in yield and wine quality have resulted from use of the system.

Answer 24

A vine-training system whereby the canopy is divided horizontally into two curtains of upward-pointing shoots which resembles a lyre in shape (U-shape.) The lyre system improves the canopy microclimate and leads to improvement in yield and wine quality because of better leaf and fruit exposure to sunlight. The system is being adopted in New World vineyards in particular, especially in California, and to a lesser extent in Australia, New Zealand, Chile, and Uruguay, but it has also been trialled in Beaujolais. The lyre system is essentially an inverted geneva double curtain, with the two adjacent curtains of foliage trained upwards rather than downwards. Both systems are used to reduce the shading of dense canopies. The lyre system is typically recommended for medium-vigour vines, whereas the GDC can harness higher vine vigour. It can be either spur or cane pruned. It is cordon-trained (not sure about training).

Answer 25

—a vine-training system widely used throughout the world, in which the shoots are trained vertically upwards in summer. The shoots are held in place by foliage wires which, in turn, are attached to vineyard posts. Used for relatively low-density plantings. —may be used for either cane-pruned or spur-pruned vines

Answer 26

Also known as pergola in Italy and enforcado in Portugal, is an alternative training system in which the vines are trained upward and overhead along wooden frames or trees, enabling workers to pass underneath. Tendone vines may be either spur- or cane-pruned.

Answer 27

Fungal Viral Bacterial Phytoplasma

Answer 28

- Fungal diseases manifest as mildew or mold and attack either the root system or the canopy of the grapevine. - Signs of infection by fungi are freckles, necrosis, cover moldy, rotting and withering. - Typically associated with warm and damp climates. - Fungal spores are spread by wind and rain. - Some of the most worrisome fungal diseases include powdery and downy mildew - Fungal diseases can be successfully controlled—if not wholly eradicated—through fungicide sprays and other applications - downy mildew, powdery mildew, gray mold, dead arm, and black rot.

Answer 29

—Bacteria are microscopic one-celled organisms that grow rapidly. —while most bacteria in the environment are beneficial, several are able to cause leaf spots, stem rots, root rots, galls wilts, blights, and cankers. —most common signs of bacterial infections are inflammation of the tissues and formation of cancer wounds. —enters vines through wounds, natural openings in the vine or direct penetration, usually in the leaf or fruit but sometimes in roots and stems. —once inside the grapevine, bacteria begin to reproduce by simple cell division and doesn’t produce spores or fruiting bodies like fungi. —spread primarily by wind-driven rain, driving or walking through a vineyard wet from dew; moved from soil/debris through workers. —bacteria, like fungi, rely on their host plant for food. In the absence of a host plant, a bacterial population may decline rapidly. Control is difficult depending on the specific disease; many owners have abandoned vineyards. —insects spread some bacterial diseases such as Pierce’s disease (most important); quarantine authorities around the world anxious to stop spreading from America. In parts of North and Central America (southern California, Florida, and eastern Texas, for instance), viticulture can be rendered commercially impossible by presence of Pierce’s disease. —Pierce’s disease, Crown gall, Bacterial Blight, and Happy disease

Answer 30

—viruses are microscopic pathogens living inside the living cells. —after entering into the vines they spread into all underground and above ground plant parts —infected vines experience a shortened lifespan, reduced yields and a changed quality of fruit. —often less immediately destructive than bacterial diseases, but there is no known cures for many. —affects changes in the shape, size and color of lamina and changes on the vine shoot and clusters. —spread through grafting or transmitted by insects —viral diseases are controlled through removal and appropriate selection for propagation. —Feanleaf virus and Leafroll

Answer 31

- caused by phytoplasmas, pathogens similar to bacteria (they are in fact obligate bacterial parasites), yet they are symptomatically similar to viral diseases and, like viruses, must be spread through an insect vector or rootstock grafting. - also known as grapevine yellows, were first recorded in Europe in the mid-1990s, and may cause widespread difficulties in the 21st century. - first sign of grapevine yellows can be delayed budbreak/slow shoot. Later, shoots stop growing while leaves yellow and curl downwards. Later in the season, shoots droop as though made of rubber. - when affected early in the season, bunches fall off. Otherwise, the berries shrivel and taste bitter. - symptoms seem to vary from year to year, and crop levels fluctuate. - during epidemics, as for example in the Prosecco region in northern Italy in 1995, yields of some vineyards dropped to one-tenth of a normal crop. The Australian experience is that vineyards with well-established infections yield at about half the rate of healthy vineyards. - recent years, climate change has been implicated, as the insect vectors spreading the disease migrate. - there is no known control. - the disease occurs sporadically in epidemics, and varieties vary in their sensitivity to it. - Flavescence dorée (FD), Bois Noir (BN), Grape leaf rust mite and Grapevine yellows (GY)

Answer 32

—Not a disease, but an infestation of a small yellow root-feeding aphid. It attacks only grapevines (leaves, tendrils, and roots), and kills vines by attacking their roots. It was first noted in 1863, just as France was recovering from powdery mildew, first found in 1847. —It is native to the Eastern United States, but it quickly spread through Europe from cuttings imported to the Southern Rhone Valley. Most of the world’s Vitis vinifera vines are today grafted onto native American vine rootstocks, which are naturally resistant to the phylloxera root louse. ***Other insects-mealy bugs, nematodes, and glassy-winged sharpshooters—act as carriers, or vectors, of disease, and their appearance in the vineyard may be a harbinger of a coming infection.

Answer 33

``` water usage energy efficiency pest and erosion control the planting of cover crops the degree of mechanization planting decisions labor practices ```

Answer 34

IPM is considered a sustainable approach to weed, insect, and disease problems that tolerates the targeted application of some synthetic products, but limits their use overall. It has the potential to increase economic returns for the grower and improve environmental and human safety by reducing, limiting or even eliminating the use of agrochemicals. IPM is often seen as a first step towards organic or even biodynamic viticulture.

Answer 35

Winegrowers’ sustainable trust. A voluntary group of Walla Walla Valley winegrowers who promote a holistic , socially- and environmentally-responsible methodology. Promotes sustainable wine growing.

Answer 36

LIVE (Low Input Viticulture and Enology, a third-party certifying system for sustainablity in Oregon. It based on a Swiss model known as Vintura.

Answer 37

Takes the concepts of organic and sustainable farming and combines them with mystical sensibility of observing the rhythms and forces of the Earth for a successful ecosystem. The farm, in concert with the cosmic periphery, becomes a whole organism generating its own fertility as governed by the cycle of seasons and lunar activity. -Introduced by the Austrian Rudolf Steiner in 1924 and today personified by Nicolas Joly of the Loire.

Answer 38

The Demeter Biodynamic Trade Association certifies biodynamic farms and vineyards internationally.

Answer 39

Whip graft (also seen it as splice graft) is the form used in grafting which simply involves an angled slice across the scion stem and a similarly angled cut of the stock, with the two cuts then matched and the graft tied tightly with grafting tape. Whip-and-tongue is the same except that another cut is made to raise ‘tongues’ of stem tissue that dovetail with each other and improve the strength of the graft. Whip-and-tongue uses the natural compression due to wood elasticity. Whip graft has no compression.

Answer 40

The most common (European) cut used for grafting, where the two pieces come together in an "omega shaped" epiglottis.

Answer 41

Coulure is a form of poor fruit set in the grapevine. Excessive shedding of ovaries and young berries results in relatively few berries per bunch, either during or soon after flowering, causing them to drop off. Susceptible to Coulure, Grenache, Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot Millerandage is another form of poor fruit set, in which there is an excessively high proportion of different-sized berries in the same bunch, i.e. excessively high proportion of seedless berries and ‘live green ovaries’ (LGOs) relative to seeded berries. Seedless berries are sometimes known as chicken berries (normal seeded berries are the hens). Whereas seedless berries will mature normally, LGOs do not and remain firm and green. They have been known as shot berries in the past, but this nomenclature is inappropriate because they do not fit the definition of a berry. Some grapes such as Pinot noir or the Mendoza clone of Chardonnay, wine quality could be improved due to the reduced overall berry size and higher skin to juice ratio. Susceptible to Millerandage: Merlot, Sangiovese, Zinfandel and Gewürztraminer.

Answer 42

—also known as oidium, it is a fungal disease native to North America, has spread worldwide and thrives even in humid yet dry conditions—rainfall actually a detriment to survival of its spores. The disease develops and spreads most rapidly in warm weather, 20 to 27 °C (68–80 °F). —Unlike other fungal diseases, this one is little affected by humidity, making climate conditions which favor it different from those which favor many others. —affects all green parts of the plant, marking grapes, leaves, and shoots with its dusty white mildew growth. —prefers densely shaded canopies and overcast weather, and greatly inhibits bunch development and ripening. —If infected prior to flowering, yields will be reduced; if infected after fruit set, berries struggle to achieve veraison and reach full size. —Spores are spread by wind and, with favorable conditions, new infections rapidly occur. —Powdery mildew, first recorded in England in 1847, spread quickly throughout the Vitis vinifera vineyards of Europe —was controlled by applications of sulfur and other fungicides.

Answer 43

—also known as Peronospera, it is a fungal disease that emigrated to Europe on North American vine cuttings, —attacks the green portions of the vine, causing leaves to drop off the vine and limiting the vine’s ability to photosynthesize. —the infection is first visible as an oil spot on vine leaves. —as spores germinate a white, cottony growth develops on the underside of the leaves. —the fungus survives the winter on fallen leaves in the soil, and its spores reach the vine again with the help of rain splatter in the spring. —Downy Mildew spread rampantly through France and the rest of Europe in the early 1880s. —Arid regions prohibit its growth. —the blue-staining Bordeaux Mixture, a spray of copper sulfate, water and lime, was developed by 1885 to prevent outbreaks of downy mildew.

Answer 44

—also called dead arm, it is a fungal disease caused by the Eutypa lata fungus. —also a trunk disease (like esca or black dead arm (BDA)Fesca; dieback is a condition in which a tree or shrub begins to die from the tip of its leaves or roots backward —spores are carried by rain and enter the vine through pruning wounds. —common in Mediterranean climates —Symptoms are characterized by dieback; death of spurs, canes, cordons, trunks, and eventual vine death due to canker formation in the vascular tissue. —infected vines experience stunted shoot growth as the fungus releases toxins, and eventually an infected cane may die—the dead arm. —has a drastic effect on yield, but does not devalue the quality of the crop. In fact, Australia’s d’Arenberg ascribes a beneficial effect on quality to the dead arm, and markets its icon Shiraz under the disease’s nickname. —the disease is difficult to control as it affects a wide number of plants. —separate fungus, Phomopsis viticola, manifests as a similar disease.

Answer 45

25-30 years

Answer 46

- also known as Black Measles, it is one of the earliest known fungal grapevine diseases - also a trunk disease like Eutypa dieback or black dead arm (BDA) - Esca thrives in warmer climates but exists worldwide. - unlike other fungal diseases, Esca is the result of a complex of fungi, rather than a single organism. - on young vines, the disease will weaken growth, affect berry development and discolor leaves; in hot weather an affected young vine may suddenly die. - in older vines, the disease affects the wood, causing the interior of the trunk and arms to soften and rot from the inside. Mature, Esca-infected vines will rarely live past 30 years of age. - the disease is exacerbated by rainfall and can be spread by wind or on the pruning shears of careless vineyard workers. - there is no known control or cure.

Answer 47

- it is fungal disease is caused by the Guignardia bidwelli - native to North America it spread to Europe with the importation of phylloxera-resistant rootstocks in the late 1800s. - originating as a black spot on the vine’s shoots, leaves, and berries. - although yield reductions can be disastrous if unchecked (up to 80%), the disease can be controlled through fungicide sprays.

Answer 48

- a grouping of similar diseases caused by a number of fungi species. - reduces crop yields and may adversely affect the character of the wine, imbuing it with moldy off-flavors. - in its malevolent form as grey rot, the fungus will break down the skin of berries and allow other yeasts and bacteria to rot the grapes. - it spreads quickly throughout vineyards. - if the fungus invades healthy white grapes under favorable conditions, it will instead result in the noble rot, a precondition for some of the world’s greatest sweet wines. - Botrytis bunch rot requires warm weather and humidity of at least 90% to germinate.

Answer 49

- it is a bacterial disease caused by Xylella fastidiosa - most commonly transmitted by the glassy-winged sharpshooter—a leafhopping insect found near citrus orchards and oleander plants - it renders vines incapable of producing chlorophyll and killing it within one to five years. - it is common in the southern United States and Mexico but is steadily moving northward in California, with sightings of the glassy-winged sharpshooter and outbreaks of the disease provoking major alarm in both Sonoma and Napa counties. - There is neither a cure nor a chemical control for the disease, and authorities in other countries are maintaining strict quarantines to prevent its incursion.

Answer 50

- also known as Black Knot, it is a bacterial disease found in a wide variety of plant species - it is spread through the propagation of bacteria-infected budwood. - a vine develops tumors (galls) on its trunk, which girdle and essentially strangle the vine, withering or killing outright the portions of the vine above. - thrives in colder climates - during winter freezes, when the vine’s trunk may be ruptured, the bacteria invade the outer trunk, rapidly multiplying and stirring up the onset of disease.

Answer 51

It is a bacterial disease caused by Xanthomonas ampelina -often kills young grapevine shoots. They develop dark brown streaks in early spring, and eventually wither and die. Spread by rain and compromised pruning tools -controlled by hot water treatments and copper sprays, such as the Bordeaux Mixture.

Answer 52

-viral disease caused by a complex of at least nine different viruses -may be responsible for as much as 60% of the world’s grape production losses. -has been a particular problem in South Africa -vines display radiant shades of red and gold in the autumn, such beautiful colors, combined with a characteristic downward curling of the leaves, signal the virus -reduced yields and delayed ripening -spreads through propagation of infected vines or by an insect vector like the mealy bug it is currently incurable but it will not kill the vine; thus, infected vines are not always removed.

Answer 53

It is a nepovirus (viral disease spread by soil nematodes feeding on infected roots) - one of the oldest known viral diseases affecting vines - deforms shoot growth, and leads to poor fruit set and shot (seedless) berries, severely curtailing yields. - productive lifespan of the vine and its winter durability are diminished - there is no control for an infected vineyard and it must be removed. The virus particle can survive in root pieces for over six years. Nematode populations can be reduced by fumigation.

Answer 54

- a phytoplasma disease of the vine (a form of grapevine yellows) - it has the potential to threaten many of the world’s vineyards and is becoming more widespread due to climate change. - first appeared in Armagnac in 1949. - leafhopper insects and propagation of infected vines spread the disease - will initially delay budbreak and slow shoot growth, eventually causing bunches to fall off the vine and berries to shrivel. The disease will discolor leaves, cause pustules and cracks to form, and may kill young vines. - No cure exists, although insecticides may be used to control leafhopper insect populations and retard its spread.

Answer 55

Flavescence dorée is a bacterial disease caused by a class of plant parasites called phytoplasma. The bacteria survives in leaf-hopper insects and from there infects vines, essentially eating plant cell wall material. Pierce's disease, on the other hand, is a bacterial disease that causes the vine to stop taking in water.

Answer 56

Winters may not always be cold enough for the vines to fall dormant, and organic viticulture may be difficult because pests and diseases are not always killed off in the winter.

Answer 57

A tiny green cover on an individual, unopened grape flower in a cluster on the vine. The cap loosens and then falls off, exposing the pinhead-size, female ovary and releasing the yellow, pollinating (male) anthers of an individual grape flower. When this cap falls off, allowing the yellow anthers to open, the flower is said to be in bloom.

Answer 58

High Vines: Tall vine trunks lift the grapes higher above the ground to increase airflow and increase sun exposure, which reduces the probability of fungal infections. Also reduces the risk of frost. This training method is more common in cooler climates with high moisture. Requires thicker and more expensive supports. Low Vines: Short vine trunks reduce a vine’s exposure to the sun and moderate temperature variation. This is more common in hotter growing regions. Widely Spaced Vines: In very dry regions, spacing vines farther apart increases their ability to access nutrients from the soil. In moist or irrigated areas, it also increases the vines production (which simultaneously reduces quality). Closely Spaced Vines: Closely spacing vines is a way to limit each vine’s vigor, limiting production and improving quality.

Answer 59

Bordeaux, Burgundy, Champagne - 10,000 plants per ha (4,050 per acre) (and sometimes more) - vines spaced typically 1 m apart both within and between the rows. New World - 1,080 vines per ha - a spacing of 2.5 m/8 ft between vines along the row and 3.7 m/12 ft between rows is quite common.

Answer 60

Probably the most widely spaced vineyards of the world are those of the Vinho Verde region in Portugal, La Mancha in Spain, and some parts of Chile, Japan, and Italy, with spacings as wide as 4 m by 4 m, or just 625 vines per ha.

Answer 61

High Vine Density: Pros: -some argue high vine densities lead to improved wine quality -The yield of densely planted vineyards is higher, especially in the first years of the vineyard’s life and with vines planted on low soil potential. -narrow spacings are appropriate to vineyards with moderate vigor, which is a feature of the low soil potential of these vineyards. -suited to vineyards of low soil fertility, or more correctly of low soil’s potential. -theory that dense planting causes root competition and substantial devigoration, but this has infrequently, if ever, been demonstrated. Cons: -Increased cost of establising and running high-density vineyards -Depending on spacing can be difficult to harvest. -Costs are higher for trellis systems, drip irrigation, and time taken to plough/spray ``` Low Vine Density Pros: -Allows for easier harvest/labor Cons: -Less plants=less yields ```

Answer 62

Viticultural practice which, it is claimed, improves wine quality by encouraging fruit ripening. It is know as eclaircissage or vendage verte (green harvest) in French. Some bunches are removed from the vine and those remaining should in theory ripen more quickly with the benefit of improved leaf to fruit ratio. - usually carried out by hand, and is therefore expensive - usually carried out during veraison, when it is obvious which bunches are slow to ripen; later bunch removal has more impact on yield, and earlier removal on fruit ripening. - technique became common in the early 1990s among the better producers of Bordeaux, where it had been practiced at Petrus since 1973

Answer 63

The process of using water sprinklers to protect budding vines from late-spring frosts.

Answer 64

French term for the crush

Answer 65

Mesoclimate: what happens in a region on a smaller scale. Microclimate: what exists within a few rows of a vineyard.

Answer 66

French term for adding mounds of earth to the base of a newly grafted vine to cover the graft union between the rootstock and scion to protect from frost damage.

Answer 67

Numbers 500 and 501 are used as foliar sprays to stimulate frowth. Numbers 502-507 are used for compost inoculation. Number 508 is used as a foliar spray to suppress fungal disease. 500: Cow manure 501: Horn-Silica 502: Yarrow Blossoms 503: Chamomile Blossoms 504: Stinging Nettle 505: Oak Bark 506: Dandelion Flowers 507: Valerian Flowers 508: Horsetail Plant

Answer 68

Cow manure- placed in cow horn and buried for winter; changes the composition of the manure which is then mixed with water and sprayed at a rate of 60 g/ha in 34 liters of water. Usually first preparation used in transitioning to organic/biodynamic viticulture

Answer 69

Horn-Silica- Ground quartz is mixed with rainwater and packed in a cow horn. The horn is buried in the spring and dug up in autumn. Mixture is then sprayed on young crops and before fruit maturation at a rate of 1 gram to 13 liters of water (per acre). Enhances photosynthesis of the leaf and sugar levels at harvest

Answer 70

Yarrow Blossoms: The flower heads are placed in a stag's bladder. Applied to compost. Increases Potassium and Sulfur content.

Answer 71

Chamomile Blossoms: The blossoms are stuffed into cow's intestines, then buried. Increases Calcium and Nitrogen content.

Answer 72

Stinging Nettle: Applied to compost. A tea from stinging nettle is sometimes sprayed on low vigor vines. Increases Iron and Magnesium content.

Answer 73

Oak Bark: The flower heads are placed in a stag's bladder. Applied to compost. Increases Calcium content.

Answer 74

Dandelion Flowers: Flowers are placed in cow mesentery. Applied to compost. Increases Silica content.

Answer 75

Valerian Flowers: The juice from the flowers is applied to compost. Increases Phosphorous content.

Answer 76

Horsetail Plant: A tea is prepared from the plant. The tea is high in Silica content and is used to cope with fungal diseases.

Answer 77

AXR1 — variety of rootstock widely used in northern California until, in the late 1980s, it became fatally obvious that it was not resistant to phylloxera, something French vignerons had known for many decades. For more information, see rootstock.

Answer 78

measure of the amount of sugar in grape juice (must), and hence indicates the amount of alcohol that could be produced if it is all fermented to alcohol, rather than left as residual sugar. Physically correct term would be must density. Germany and Switzerland- degrees Oechsle (°Oe) Italy, France and Canada- degrees Brix United States- specific gravity Austria- Klosterneuburger Mostwaage (KMW) scale Czech Republic and Slovakia- degrees Normalizovaný moštoměr (°NM).

Answer 79

The vine shuts down as sap recededs to the root and grapes are allowed to hang on the vine until they start to dehydrate. This process concentrates the sugars in the juice and changes the flavours within it.

Answer 80

(latin: gustis or taste) The stage of ripening when aroma and flavor become apparent, as the berries build up sugar and soften.