Viticulture Flashcards
The grower or viticulturalist confronts decisions on-
vine training and pruning methods, canopy management, fertilization and irrigation, harvest dates, and disease control; and monitors the development of the vineyard
The annual life cycle of the vine begins in the spring, with -
budbreak
The vine, will start “__” or “__” watery sap from pruned canes sometime in February (in the Northern Hemisphere)
weeping, bleeding
The vine will finally emerge from dormancy as the average air temperature surpasses-
50°F
Budbreak usually occurs in-
March or April
During budbreak the first small shoots and leaves will break through buds left intact by __
winter pruning
What is the vine vulnerable to during budbreak?
frost
The vine’s foliage continues to develop through the early spring, and small green clusters called __ form on the shoots by mid-April
embryo bunches
Flowering occurs __ weeks after the initial budbreak, depending on the climate
6-13
During flowering, the embryo bunches bloom into small flowers for about 10 days, and the self-pollinating grapevine begins the process of-
fertilization, which leads to fruit set
As the vine flowers, it is extremely susceptible to the damaging effects of-
cold, frost, and wind
Successfully pollinated embryo bunches grow into true grape clusters during __—each grape is the product of individual fertilization
fruit set
Fruit set usually hovers around __%—the remaining embryo berries “shatter,” falling from the cluster
30
As the berries enlarge through July, they remain-
hard, high in acidity and low in sugar
In August, however, __ begins and the grapes begin to truly ripen, as sugars are moved from the leaf system to the fruit
veraison (véraison)
During veraison, the grapes soften and change color—turning from green to red-black or yellow-green— and__ decreases
acidity
While veraison swiftly affects an individual grape, it may not __ a whole bunch
evenly affect
Some varieties, such as __, are characterized by extremely uneven ripening, in which veraison haphazardly affects each bunch
Zinfandel
__ occurs in tandem with veraison
Cane ripening
Describe Cane ripening
the stems on each shoot begin to lignify, accumulating carbohydrates to sustain the plant through the winter
Once the grapes have achieved an optimal balance of sugar and acid, they are ready for __
harvest (vendange)
Harvest, by either manual or mechanical means, begins as early as late__, and may last through the beginning of__.
August, November
__ grapes are generally harvested before__ grapes
White, red
Some white grapes destined for the specialized botrytised dessert wines or icewine may hang on the vine until-
late November or December
New World winemakers have greatly advanced the idea of __ ripeness
complete physiological
Describe complete physiological ripeness
A concept of ripeness comprising not only must weight and pH, but also the ripening of tannin and other phenolics, the condition of the berry and its pulp, and seed lignification—which often requires longer “hang time” for the grapes on the vine.
The vines lose their leaves in the autumn, and enter a period of __
winter dormancy
__ may be applied in the fall after harvest
Fertilization
Note: For equivalent dates in southern hemisphere vineyards, add __
six months
The vines will be__ over the winter to prepare for next year’s growth
pruned
Climate encompasses-
expected temperature, rainfall, sunshine, wind, and other atmospheric elements
Climate vs. Weather
Climate remains relatively stable from year to year—weather is the daily manifestation of climate, and is generally responsible for vintage variation
For temperature, the vine prefers a mean annual level between __° - __°F, with an ideal of __°F
50°-68°F, 57°F
To successfully ripen, red grapes require an average summer temperature of approx _
70°F
To successfully ripen, white grapes require an average summer temperature of approx __ °F
66°F
Viticulture is generally restricted to the temperate bands of latitude between __ and __
30° and 50° in both the northern/southern hemispheres
certain pockets of viticulture exist, due to privileged exposures and climatic conditions, outside of these general bands of latitude, but what is changing?
climate change may expand the grapevine’s habitat in the coming years
One method of classifying climates solely by temperature—and therefore recommending varieties appropriate to that temperature—is the __
California Heat Summation Index
The California Heat Summation Index divides climates into-
5 Regions based on the # of degree days
Degree days are calculated by-
multiplying the days in each month of the growing season (defined as April 1 through October 31) by the mean number of degrees over 50°F for that month
The months’ totals of Degree Days are then added together to arrive at the __
heat summation
California Heat Summation Region 1
less than 2,500° days F (less than 1,371° days C)
California Heat Summation Region 2
2,500-3,000° days F (1,372-1,649° days C)
California Heat Summation Region 3
3,000-3,500° days F (1,650-1,927° days C)
California Heat Summation Region 4
3,500-4,000° days F (1,928-2,204° days C)
California Heat Summation Region 5
more than 4,000° days F (more than 2,205° days C)
Temperature and__ are closely related
sunshine
Sunshine is a requirement for __
photosynthesis
Describe photosynthesis
in which plants convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds, including sugars
The minimum amount of sunshine required to support viticulture is approx __ hours
1,300 hours
Sunshine during the growing season increases where?
the farther one moves away from the equator, vines in the cooler climates often enjoy more sunshine than vines in the warmer climates
What does Cloud Cover effect?
Will not greatly impact the transmission of light for the purposes of photosynthesis, but it will affect the amount of heat the sun bestows on a vine
The vine evolved as a drought-resistant plant, but it still requires approx __ inches of rainfall annually to produce an adequate crop, depending on the warmth of the climate
20-30
Many Mediterranean winegrowing regions receive rainfall when?
an abundance of rain in winter and spring, and remain mostly dry through the summer—ideal for the vine
If the vine receives too little rain, what will occur?
water stress
Water Stress promotes what?
smaller berry size & yields but will lead to interrupted ripening and complete shutdown of the vine if too severe
Too much rain will not adversely affect the vine itself, but it will-
dilute fruit quality and create a friendly environment for fungal diseases
Wind can be a detriment to the vine if-
it blows persistently hard
At its most violent extreme, wind can-
undermine flowering and denude vines
In _ climates, wind chill can be especially devastating
colder
Wind can be a detriment to problems such as __ and __
mold and mildew
Wind machines are often employed in the battle against frost to-
mix colder, settled air near the ground with warmer upper air
What is a macroclimate?
the regional climate
What is mesoclimate?
the climate of a particular vineyard
What are essential to distinctions in mesoclimate?
aspect (degree and direction of its slope) and shelter of a vineyard
Pros/cons to slopes?
Slopes provide good drainage and may benefit from increased sunshine, but temperature falls steadily with added altitude
What is a microclimate?
refers to the climate in and around a vine canopy, the restricted space including all parts of the vine above the ground
What have been developed to adjust the microclimate of a vine?
Techniques of canopy management, particularly in its exposure to sunshine and its eventual yield
Name some techniques of canopy management
winter pruning, leaf removal, shoot positioning, use of sophisticated trellising systems
What is a major aspect of a vine’s success?
Soil type
What contributes to higher acidity (low pH) in grapes?
High soil pH
What can be a deterrent to viticulture and can be countered by the application of lime?
Soil acidity (low pH)
Once a vineyard is established, the grower may choose to propagate the vines by either __ selection or __ selection
clonal selection or mass selection (selection massale)
Mass selection, popular in Burgundy, enables the grower to select budwood for replanting from a number of vines throughout the vineyard, rather than
single clones
Mass selection maintains a __ __ __ by the grower attempting to reinforce positive traits and eliminate negative traits through appropriate selection
broader genetic diversity
Mass selection is __ precise than clonal selection
less
During mass selection the scion is grafted onto a separate rootstock, usually __
American rootstock
Budwood selection also known as __
scion
What rootstocks are highly resistant to the phylloxera louse?
lowly American grapevine species—Vitis riparia and others
A grower may select a particular rootstock not just for its resistance to phylloxera, but also its ability to-
withstand other diseases and drought, its tolerance to salt and lime, and/or its effect on vine vigor
Once grafted and planted, the vine will not usually produce a crop of grapes suitable for harvest until its __ year
third
In many European appellations, growers are prohibited from harvesting grapes for wine until the vine is at least __ years old
3
By its __th year, the grapevine is considered mature; shoot growth and the vine’s annual yield, in the absence of major stresses, stabilize.
6th
The root system will grow to maturity by the __ year, although poorer soils will slow growth.
10th
The yield of many commercial vineyards will begin to decline after __ years, and vineyards are often uneconomical to maintain after 50 years of age.
20
What does vine training include?
processes of pruning, shaping, and trellising the vine
The objective of vine training is to-
maximize the vine’s performance in local conditions and to keep its canes from touching the ground and establishing new roots
The grapevine does not have a self-supporting structure, and must often be tethered to-
another apparatus: a tree, stake, or a wire trellis
the principles of __ management are voiced through the selection of a training system
canopy
Most vines can be classified as either __-trained or __-trained
head, cordon
In cordon training, the vine has at least one permanent _ that extends from the trunk, called an __/__
cane, arm/cordon
Head-trained vines have no permanent __, and the trunk ends in a __/ __
cordon, knob/head
__ -trained vines generally require a trellising system, whereas __-trained vines may be supported by a simple stake, or not at all
Cordon, head
Although head-trained vines may technically be trellised, head-training is commonly asserted as-
an alternative to trellising, synonymous with bush vines
Head-trained vines may be __-pruned or __-pruned, whereas cordon-trained vines are just __-pruned
spur, cane, spur
If left on the vine, a green shoot (__) will harden to become a woody cane after a season
fruiting cane
Along the cane are a number of __, which will each produce a shoot during spring budbreak
buds
The spur is a cane cut back to __ buds
2
If a vine is spur-pruned, the upper cane growing from a spur will be removed during winter pruning, and the lower cane-
growing from the same spur will be cut back to two buds, creating a new spur
In Cordon, each spur will produce 2 fruiting canes each year, one of which will become-
the following year’s spur
Cordon-trained vines contain several __ along the length of the arm
spurs
In its simplest form, cane pruning requires the grower to retain-
one spur and one cane
The number of buds left on the cane may range from __, and European appellation systems often establish a max number for each grape
6-12+
In Cordon, the buds on the 2-yr-old cane each release shoots that will produce-
a season’s fruit
In Cordon, the entire 2-yr-old main cane and its fruiting canes are __ after the growing season.
removed
In the 2yr old main cane’s place, one of the __ canes from the spur is selected and retained to become the following season’s main cane
1-year-old
Although cane-pruning is usually only used on head-trained vines, some growers occasionally merge the style with cordon-training, retaining a “__” along an otherwise spur-trained cordon
kicker cane
One of the most basic systems of cane-pruning/head-training is the-
Guyot system, developed in the 1860 by Jules Guyot
the Guyot system requires a __ trellis on which the canes can be suspended, and has one spur and one main two-year-old cane
vertical
The Guyot Double variant supports __main canes, extending outward from the trunk on opposite sides
2
The simplest form of spur-pruning/head-training is the __ system, an ancient technique common in the Southern Rhône and Southern Italy
Goblet
Describe the Goblet system
the vine, often unsupported, resembles a goblet, with each year’s fruiting canes extending from the spur-pruned, shortened arms atop the trunk
In Italy the Gobelet system is known as-
albarello
In Spain the Gobelet system is known as-
en vaso
Australians often refer to Gobelet system vines as-
bush vines
One of the simplest spur-pruned/cordon-trained systems is the __, the preferred training style for Pinot Noir in Champagne
Cordon de Royat
The Cordon de Royat system is similar to the Guyot system, in that-
a single spur-pruned permanent cordon extending horizontally from the trunk, rather than a 2-year-old cane.
What is a close variant to the Geneva system of training?
the Lyre system
The spur-pruned/cordon-trained Geneva/Lyre system is more complicated, in that-
as cordons extend outward from the trunk in a flat “U” shape, creating a divided canopy
Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP), a trellising system, may be used for either __ or __ vines
cane-pruned or spur-pruned
The Tendone system is known as __ in Italy and __ in Portugal
pergola, enforcado
The Tendone system is an alternative training system in which the vines are trained-
upward and overhead along wooden frames or trees, enabling workers to pass underneath
Tendone vines may be either-
spur- or cane-pruned
Diseases that affect the vine can be broadly categorized into what 4 main groups?
- fungal
- viral
- bacterial
- phytoplasma
Fungal diseases manifest as what?
mildew or mold
Fungal diseases are typically associated with what climates?
warm and damp climates
Fungal diseases attack either the __ or the __ of the grapevine
root system or the canopy
Fungal spores are spread by-
wind and rain
Once entrenched in a vine, fungal diseases may-
infect an entire vineyard
What are some of the most worrisome fungal diseases?
powdery and downy mildew
Powdery and downy mildew originated in-
in America, arriving in Europe on cuttings in the 19th century
Fungal diseases, while problematic in the past, can be successfully controlled—if not wholly eradicated—through-
fungicide sprays and other applications
Bacterial diseases are less common but how are controlled?
difficultly and can be extremely devastating to the health of the vine
How are viral disease spread?
through grafting or transmitted by insects
Virus’ affect on vines?
are often less immediately destructive than bacterial diseases, yet there is no known cure for many common viruses affecting grapevines
Infected viral vines experience what?
a shortened lifespan, reduced yields and a changed quality of fruit
Viral diseases are controlled through what?
removal and appropriate selection for propagation
Phytoplasma diseases are caused by-
phytoplasmas, pathogens similar to bacteria, yet they are symptomatically similar to viral diseases and, like viruses, must be spread through an insect vector or rootstock grafting
Phytoplasma diseases are also known as ___
grapevine yellows
Grapevine yellows were first recorded in Europe in the-
mid-1990s, and may cause widespread difficulties in the 21st century
One of the most historically important and devastating blights on the vine is not a disease at all, but an infestation: __
phylloxera
The tiny Daktulosphaira vitifoliae was originally called __
Phylloxera vastatrix
What is Phylloxera vastatrix?
An aphid that feeds on the roots of vines
Phylloxera is native to-
the Eastern United States, but it quickly spread through Europe from cuttings imported to the Southern Rhône Valley in the early 1860s
Phylloxera will kill vines by-
destroying its root system
Most of the world’s Vitis vinifera vines are today grafted onto-
native American vine rootstocks, which are naturally resistant to the phylloxera root louse
Sandier soils, such as those found in __, act as a natural barrier, impeding the spread of phylloxera
Colares in Portugal
What insects act as carriers, or vectors, of disease, and their appearance in the vineyard may be a harbinger of a coming infection?
mealy bugs, nematodes, and glassy-winged sharpshooters
Powdery Mildew (Oidium) is native to-
North America, the Uncinula necator fungus has spread worldwide
Powdery Mildew thrives in what conditions?
humid yet dry conditions—rainfall is actually a detriment to the survival of its spores
Powdery Mildew, during its anamorph stage, is known as __
Oidium tuckerii
Powdery mildew affects what parts of the plant?
all green parts, marking grapes, leaves, and shoots with its dusty white mildew growth
Powdery mildew prefers what weather?
densely shaded canopies and overcast weather, and greatly inhibits bunch development and ripening
If powdery mildew hits prior to flowering than-
yields will be reduced
If powdery mildew hits after fruit set then-
berries will struggle to achieve veraison and reach full size
Fruit affected by powdery mildew is universally avoided in the winemaking process, as it creates-
off-flavors in the wine
Powdery mildew, first recorded in England in __, spread quickly throughout the Vitis vinifera vineyards of Europe but was soon controlled by applications of sulfur and other fungicides.
1847
Downy mildew is also known as ___
Peronospora
Downy mildew also emigrated to __ on __
Europe on North American vine cuttings
Downy mildew spread rampantly through France and the rest of Europe in the early __
1880s
Plasmopara viticola, the agent of downy mildew, attacks what?
the green portions of the vine, causing leaves to drop off the vine and limiting the vine’s ability to photosynthesize
Downy mildew is first visible as-
an oil spot on vine leaves
For Downy Mildew, as spores germinate-
cottony growth develops on the underside of the leaves
For Downy Mildew,the fungus survives the winter on-
fallen leaves in the soil, and its spores reach the vine again with the help of rain splatter in the spring
The blue-staining Bordeaux Mixture, a spray of copper sulfate, water and lime, was developed-
by 1885 to prevent outbreaks of downy mildew
What regions prohibit the growth of downy mildew?
Arid regions
Eutypa Dieback is also called ___
dead arm
Eutypa Dieback is caused by __
the Eutypa lata fungus
For Eutypa Dieback, Spores are carried by rain and enter the vine through-
pruning wounds
Eutypa Dieback is common in what climates?
Mediterranean climates, the disease is difficult to control as it affects a wide number of plants
Infected vines with Eutypa Dieback experience-
stunted shoot growth as the fungus releases toxins, and eventually an infected cane may die—the dead arm
The Dead arm disease has a drastic effect on-
yield, but does not devalue the quality of the crop
Australia’s d’Arenberg ascribes a beneficial effect on quality to what?
the dead arm, and markets its icon Shiraz under the disease’s nickname
A separate fungus from Eutypa Dieback, __, manifests as a similar disease
Phomopsis viticola
Esca is also known as __
Black Measles
One of the earliest known fungal grapevine diseases, __ thrives in warmer climates but exists worldwide, and there is no known control or cure
Esca
Unlike other fungal diseases, Esca is the result of-
a complex of fungi, rather than a single organism
On young vines, Esca will-
weaken growth, affect berry development and discolor leaves; in hot weather an affected young vine may suddenly die
In older vines, Esca affects-
the wood, causing the interior of the trunk and arms to soften and rot from the inside—a condition that led ancient Romans to use Esca-infected tree trunks for firewood, as its spongy interior quickly caught fire
Mature, Esca-infected vines will rarely live past __ years of age
30
Esca is exacerbated by-
rainfall and can be spread by wind or on the pruning shears of careless vineyard workers
Black Rot is native to-
North America, spread to Europe with the importation of phylloxera-resistant rootstocks in the late 1800s
Black Rot is caused by-
the Guignardia bidwelli fungus
Black Rot originates on the plant as-
a black spot on the vine’s shoots, leaves, and berries
Black Rot can be controlled through-
fungicide sprays
Effect of Black Rot?
yield reductions can be disastrous if unchecked
Bunch rot is a-
grouping of similar diseases caused by a number of fungi species
Bunch rot effects?
reduce crop yields and may adversely affect the character of the wine, imbuing it with moldy off-flavors
One of the most common forms of bunch rot is-
Botrytis bunch rot
Bunch Rot is known in its malevolent form as-
grey rot
the Botrytis cinerea fungus will break down the skin of berries and
allow other yeasts and bacteria to rot the grapes
Botrytis cinerea spreads-
quickly throughout vineyards
If Botrytis cinerea invades healthy white grapes under favorable conditions, it will instead result in-
the noble rot
Botrytis bunch rot requires warm weather and humidity of-
at least 90% to germinate
Pierce’s Disease is caused by-
the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa
Pierce’s Disease is most commonly transmitted by-
the glassy-winged sharpshooter—a leafhopping insect found near citrus orchards and oleander plants
Pierce’s Disease is a scourge, rendering vines-
incapable of producing chlorophyll and killing it within 1-5 years
Pierce’s Disease is common in-
the southern United States and Mexico but is steadily moving northward in California, with sightings and outbreaks provoking major alarm in both Sonoma and Napa counties
Pierce’s Disease solution?
neither a cure nor a chemical control for the disease, and authorities in other countries are maintaining strict quarantines to prevent its incursion
Crown Gall is also known as __
Black Knot
What bacterium causes the Crown Gall disease in a wide variety of plant species?
The Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium
When affected with Crown Gall, a vine develops-
tumors (galls) on its trunk, which girdle and essentially strangle the vine, withering or killing outright the portions of the vine above
Crown Gall thrives in what climates?
colder climates, and systemically live inside the grapevine
During winter freezes, when the vine’s trunk may be ruptured, Crown Gall’s invades-
the outer trunk, rapidly multiplying and fomenting the onset of disease
Crown Gall is spread through-
the propagation of bacteria-infected budwood
Bacterial Blight is caused by-
the Xanthomonas ampelina bacterium
Bacterial Blight often kills-
young grapevine shoots
With blight, young shoots develop what?
dark brown streaks in early spring, and eventually wither and die
Blight is spread by-
rain and compromised pruning tools
Blight can be controlled by-
hot water treatments and copper sprays, such as the Bordeaux Mixture
Leafroll Virus is a condition caused by-
a complex of at least 9 different viruses
Leafroll Virus may be responsible for as much as __% of the world’s grape production losses
60
Affected vines of Leafroll virus display-
radiant shades of red and gold in the autumn, such beautiful colors, combined with a characteristic downward curling of the leaves
Leafroll virus effects?
reduced yields and delayed ripening
Leafroll Virus is spread through-
propagation of infected vines or by an insect vector like the mealy bug
Leafroll Virus is currently incurable but it will not-
kill the vine; thus, infected vines are not always removed
Fanleaf Degeneration is a-
nepovirus spread by soil nematodes feeding on infected roots, severely curtails yields and affected vineyards must be removed
A complex of similar diseases, Fanleaf Degeneration deforms-
shoot growth, and leads to poor fruit set and shot (seedless) berries
In Fanleaf Degeneration, the leaves on an infected vine are-
malformed, resembling fans in appearance, and may form yellow bands around the veins. The productive lifespan of the vine and its winter durability are diminished.
Name a Phytoplasma Disease
Flavescence Dorée
What is Flavescence Dorée?
A form of grapevine yellows
Flavescence Dorée first appeared in-
Armagnac in 1949
What spreads Flavescence Dorée?
Leafhopper insects and propagation of infected vines
Effects of Flavescence Dorée?
will initially delay budbreak and slow shoot growth, eventually causing bunches to fall off the vine and berries to shrivel, will discolor leaves, cause pustules and cracks to form, may kill young vines
Cure for Flavescence Dorée?
No cure exists, although insecticides may be used to control leafhopper insect populations and retard its spread
The discovery of synthetic nitrogen led to-
the development of chemical fertilizers, a Nobel Prize-winning endeavor blemished by its subsequent use in the poison gases of World Wars I and II
GMOs (genetically modified organisms) have been banned in the EU since-
1998, but genetically modified yeasts were first employed in North American winemaking in 2006
The ideal of sustainable viticulture, an unregulated (and therefore abused) term, is ultimately to-
return the vineyard to a self-sustaining position in harmony with the larger ecosystem to which it belongs
In order to grow grapes organically in the US or Australia, synthetic chemical treatments and certain filtration procedures are forbidden but what is allowed?
copper and sulfur treatments, such as Bordeaux Mixture, may still be allowed
When an American (or Australian) wine is labeled as organic, it must be-
produced from organically-grown grapes and contain no added sulfites
No added sulfites can be a detriment in what way?
sulfites are an important (and almost universal) preservative in wine
Many bottles are labeled as “wine made from organically grown grapes,” a designation which permits-
the addition of sulfites
Despite the image of green, less than __% of California’s wineries use any organically grown grapes
10
EU on organic wine requirments?
as of mid-2010, currently in the process of re-evaluating its organic requirements in regards to wine and sulfites
While organic viticulture is admirable, it functions legally by-
the elimination of negative practices, rather than implementation of positive ones
Aside from Organic, other models of sustainability take a different approach in-
promoting the long-term health of the soil and the vine’s relationship to its environment
sustainability may govern (but is not limited to)-
water usage, energy efficiency, pest and erosion control, the planting of cover crops, the degree of mechanization, planting decisions, and even labor practices
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is considered a-
sustainable approach to weed, insect, and disease problems that tolerates the targeted application of some synthetic products, but limits their use overall
Often, IPM is utilized as a vineyard transitions from-
conventional to organic viticulture, or it may be a part of a separate sustainability philosophy
What is VINEA?
a voluntary group of Walla Walla Valley winegrowers who promote a holistic, socially- and environmentally-responsible methodology
VINEA winegrowers may not be exclusively organic, but they do-
farm in accordance with the standards set forth by LIVE (Low Input Viticulture and Enology, a third-party certifying system) and the vineyards are certified as Salmon-Safe
Oregon’s producers are at the forefront of sustainable approaches, and may label their wines as-
Oregon Sustainable Certified Wine (OSCW) provided 97% of fruit is certified by Salmon-Safe
What must OSCW go through to certify both the fruit and the winery?
Another approved organization, such as LIVE or USDA Organic
California Certified Sustainable Winegrowing (CCSW) provides-
incremental certification for wineries and vineyards based on a concept of continual improvement
While less than __% of California’s wineries use any amount of organically grown grapes, over __% of the state’s vineyard acreage has been assessed (if not certified) for CCSW compatibility.
10, 60
What is the ideal of biodynamic farming?
Observing the rhythms and forces of the Earth is, intrinsically tied to the success of any ecosystem—the farm, in concert with the cosmic periphery, becomes a whole organism, generating its own fertility as governed by the cycle of seasons and lunar activity
Truly biodynamic vineyard workers will time their various tasks by-
motions of celestial bodies—particularly the moon
Who introduced biodynamics?
Austrian Rudolf Steiner in 1924 and today personified by Nicolas Joly of the Loire
Biodynamic agriculture requires the yearly application of
homeopathic preparations, produced from such animal and mineral substances as dandelion flowers, stinging nettles, and “horn manure” to ritually treat and heal the soil
What is emphasize in biodynamics?
Biodiversity and soil rotation
Who certifies biodynamic farms and vineyards internationally?
The Demeter Biodynamic Trade Association
