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Biomolecules of Life > Vitamins > Flashcards

Vitamins Flashcards

1
Q

What is a vitamin and in what amounts are they needed?

A

Vitamins are essential organic substances needed in minute amounts to activate highly specific metabolic functions in the body

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2
Q

Why are vitamins accessory nutrients?

A

Because they themselves supply no energy and form no structures but their deficiencies can be dangerous as well as toxic if some are in excess

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3
Q

What are vitamins that must be consumed called?

A

Preformed vitamins

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4
Q

What are vitamins that may be synthesised by the body using precursors called?

A

Pro-vitamins

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5
Q

Vitamins can be classified, what are the two sub divisions?

A

Water soluble vitamins and lipid soluble vitamins

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6
Q

How would you describe water soluble vitamins?

A

They are not stored in any tissues and excess is removed in urine

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7
Q

Examples of some water soluble vitamins would include?

A

b1, b2, b3, b5, b6, b9, b12, vitamin c, biotin (vit h)

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8
Q

Where are lipid soluble vitamins stored and can they be removed?

A

They are stored in the liver and adipose. The body has no way of removing them until they are used.

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9
Q

Give some examples of some lipid soluble vitamins

A

Vitamins a, d, e and k

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10
Q

Of the vitamins that are ingested, where do the majority originate from?

A

From plant sources (except b12) as byproducts of photosynthesis

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11
Q

Give two examples of pro vitamins and from what they are synthesised

A

carotene –> vitamin a ultraviolet light –> vitamin d

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12
Q

What are most vitamins converted into, for use inside the body? What is one of their main roles?

A

Most vitamins are converted into coenzymes - b12

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13
Q

Some vitamins such as vitamin d and some metabolites of vitamin a have a different role other than coenzymes, what can they do?

A

They act more like hormones, binding to receptors and controlling gene expression and metabolism

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14
Q

Some vitamins such as vit c and vit e act as ______, not as coenzymes or the control of gene expression and metabolism

A

antioxidants

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15
Q

What is the role of antioxidants

A

Preventing or delaying some types of cell damage

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16
Q

What is a coenzyme?

A

A coenzyme is a non protein compound that is necessary for the functioning of an enzyme

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17
Q

Some coenzymes allow the substrate to react more readily, give some vitamin derivatives that allow this

A

CoA, pyridoxal phosphate, thiamin diphosphate and vitamin b12

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18
Q

There are some oxidative coenzymes, what are these

A

NAD+, NADP+, FAD, lipoic acid

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19
Q

What is the function of oxidative coenzymes?

A

To carry hydrogen atoms or electrons

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20
Q

What is the protein part of the enzyme called?

A

The apoenzyme

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21
Q

When the protein part of the enzyme is in combination with the coenzyme the catalytically competent enzyme is known as what?

A

As the holoenzyme

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22
Q

Apoenzyme + coenzyme =

A

holoenzyme

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23
Q

Vitamin b1 is

A

thiamine

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24
Q

vitamin b2 is

A

riboflavin

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25
Q

vitamin b3 is

A

niacin

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26
Q

vitamin b5 is

A

pantothenic acid

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27
Q

vitamin b6 is

A

pyridoxine

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28
Q

vitamin b9 is

A

folic acid

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29
Q

vitamin b12 is

A

cobalamin

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30
Q

vitamin c is

A

ascorbic acid

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31
Q

vitamin a is

A

retinol

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32
Q

vitamin d is

A

calcitrol

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33
Q

vitamin e is

A

tocopherols

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34
Q

Where is thiamine/vitamin b1 derived from?

A

From a substituted pyrimidine and thiazole

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35
Q

Is thiamine water soluble or lipid soluble?

A

It is water soluble

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36
Q

How can one obtain vitamin b1/thiamine?

A

Through their diet from most grains

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37
Q

Where is a deficiency of b1 prevalent?

A

In South east Asia

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38
Q

What is the active form of thiamine?

A

Thiamin pyrophosphate - TPP

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39
Q

Where is thiamine converted to its active form of thiamin pyrophosphate?

A

In the brain and liver

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40
Q

What enzyme converts thiamin/vit b1 to thiamin pyrophosphate?

A

The enzyme thiamin diphosphotransferase

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41
Q

Why is thiamin pyrophosphate necessary in the body?

A

It is a key coenzyme for the pyruvate and a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase catalysed reactions

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42
Q

What is the function of pyruvate dehydrogenase?

A

Part of a multi enzyme complex that acts to convert pyruvate generated in glycolysis into acetyl coA for entry into the krebs cycle

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43
Q

What is the function of a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase?

A

regulation in the krebs cycle. Involved in the conversion of ketoglutarate to syccinyl coA

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44
Q

Thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP) is a necessary coenzyme for pyruvate dehydrogenase and a-ketoglutarate, what does TPP assist in in both cases?

A

Assists in the decarboxylation of a small ketoacid

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45
Q

In addition to its uses in metabolism, list three other uses of thiamine/ vitamin b1.

A
  1. Enhance circulation and blood formation 2. Maintenance of nervous system - biosynthesis of acetylcholin and GABA 3. Production of HCl in stomach - digestive role
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46
Q

What is a deficiency of b1 called?

A

Beriberi

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47
Q

Alchohol-related thiamin deficiency is caused by an

A

inadequate intake of thiamine as well as impaired absorption and storage

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48
Q

What are the early symptoms of beriberi

A

they are non specific and include fatigue, loss of appetite, irritability, abdominal discomfort

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49
Q

As the disease of beriberi progresses, what do patients tend to develop?

A

Burning sensations, tingling in the extremities, changes in sensation - numbness, may develop psychosis. Heart failure,

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50
Q

Is vitamin b2/riboflavin water soluble or lipid soluble?

A

Water soluble

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51
Q

What is vitamin b2/riboflavin synthesised by?

A

Microorganisms and plants

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52
Q

What types of food provide vitamin b2?

A

Milk, liver, cheese, green vegetables, almonds

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53
Q

What destroys vitamin b2?

A

Exposure to light

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54
Q

What is the active form of riboflavin?

A

Riboflavin is the precursor for the coenzymes flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). So it is active as a coenzyme

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55
Q

The enzymes that require FMN and FAD as coenzymes are called?

A

Flavoproteins

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56
Q

Several flavoproteins also contain metal ions, what are these termed?

A

Metalloflavoproteins

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57
Q

Both FMN and FAD are involved in a wide range of

A

redox reactions and help the metabolism of carbohydrates, amino and fatty acids

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58
Q

Symptoms associated with a deficiency of vitamin b2/riboflavin include

A

sore throat, dermatitis, anemia, neuropathy and cataract formation

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59
Q

Where is b2/riboflavin deficiency observed?

A

In malnutrition or chronic alcoholism

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60
Q

The conversion of riboflavin to flavin mononucleotide is required for absorption and transport into many tissues. This conversion is inhibited by…

A

hypothyroidism and the structurally similar medications such as tetracycline and tricyclic antidepressants

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61
Q

What is hypothyroidism?

A

Thyroid produced less thyroid hormone than it should which causes the metabolism to run too slow

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62
Q

Is niacin water or lipid soluble

A

Water soluble

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63
Q

B3/ niacin can be synthesised by the body, how?

A

It can be synthesised in the liver from the essential amino acid tryptophan but the synthesis is inefficient

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64
Q

The synthesis of niacin within the human body is inefficient, so what types of food can you obtain vitamin b3/niacin from?

A

Proteins, meat, fish, milk, eggs, peanuts

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65
Q

What is the active form of b3/niacin?

A

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide NAD+ and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate NADP+

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66
Q

What is the function of the active forms of b3/niacin (NAD+, NADP+)?

A

Both function as cofactors for numerous dehydrogenases

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67
Q

What is the role of the derivatives of NAD+/NADP+ that come from coenzymes from b3/niacin?

A

Energy metabolism

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68
Q

List two other functions of niacin in the body

A

Removing toxic chemicals from the body and assisting in the production of steroid hormones

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69
Q

What is the deficiency disease associated with a b3 deficiency?

A

Pellagra

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70
Q

What two ways could cause an individual to develop b3 deficiency?

A

Failure of the body to absorb niacin or trptophan

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71
Q

What are the symptoms of pellagra?

A

dermatitis, blackening of the tongue, scaly skin sores

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72
Q

Where were early cases of pellagra observed?

A

Europe shortly after the introduction of corn

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73
Q

Why did the consumption of corn cause niacin deficiencies?

A

The niacin in corn is not bioavailable unless treated with a strong base

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74
Q

Is vitamin b5/ pantothenic acid water soluble or lipid soluble?

A

It is water soluble

75
Q

What is pantothenic acid formed from?

A

B-alanine and pantoic acid

76
Q

Which foods can pantothenic acid / vit b5 be found in?

A

Whole grain cereals, legumes, meat, eggs

77
Q

What is the active form of pantothenic acid?

A

Pantothenate is required for the synthesis of coenzyme a, co-a which is needed for acetyl coA

78
Q

What is the function of acetyl coa?

A

Delivers the carbon atoms to the krebs cycle to be oxidised for energy

79
Q

What does pantothenic acid/vit b5 enhance within the body?

A

Healthy skin and muscles, fights allergies, metabolism

80
Q

Symptoms of a deficiency in b5 include…

A

Headaches, depression, tingling, frequent infections.

81
Q

What types of people would benefit from b5 / pantothenic acid?

A

People who are overstressed or those who are predisposed to allergies.

82
Q

Is vitamin b6/pyridoxine water soluble or lipid soluble?

A

Water soluble

83
Q

What is the origin of pyridoxine?

A

Nitrogen fixing bacteria

84
Q

What is the active form of pyridoxine/ vit b6?

A

Pyridoxal phosphate

85
Q

What enzyme converts pyridoxine to pyridoxal phosphate?

A

The atp requiring enzyme pyridoxal kinase

86
Q

What is the function of pyridoxal phosphate?

A

Functions as a coenzyme in enzymes involved in transamination reactions - required for synthesis and catabolism of amino acids

87
Q

What does a deficiency in b6/pyridoxine cause?

A

Skin disorders, poor coordination, insomnia,

88
Q

*Describe the structure of b9/folic acid.

A

A conjugated molecule consisting of a pteridine ring structure linked to para-aminobenzoic acid that forms pteroic acid. Folic acid itself is then generated through the conjugation of glutamic acid residues to pteroic acid

89
Q

What types of food is folic acid/b9 obtained from?

A

From leafy vegetables, yeast, animal liver

90
Q

What is the primary form of folic acid/ b9

A

Folic acid is reduced within cells to tetrahydrofolate THF

91
Q

Which enzyme reduces folic acid / b9 to tetrahydrofolate - the active form of folic acid?

A

Dihydrofolate reductase

92
Q

What is the function of tetrahydrofolate?

A

To carry and transfer various forms of one carbon units during biosynthetic reactions

93
Q

*In biosynthetic reactions, what is the one carbon unit that tetrahydrofolate helps to transfer?

A

Methyl, methylene, methenyl, formyl or formimino groups

94
Q

What are carbon transfer reactions required in? Biosynthesis of what?

A

The biosynthesis of serine, methonine, glycine, choline and purine nucleotides

95
Q

What is the most pronounced effect of a folate deficiency?

A

On DNA synthesis

96
Q

What happens when a folate deficiency results in the inability to synthesis DNA during erythrocyte maturation?

A

Abnormally large erythrocytes - the disease is termed macrocytic anemia

97
Q

Why do pregnant women need more folate?

A

Because there is an increased number of rapidly proliferating cells present in the blood

98
Q

Describe the structure of vitamin b12 or cobalamin

A

Composed of a tetrapyrrol ring and a co ordinated cobalt ion

99
Q

What organisms synthesis b12/cobalamin

A

Microorganisms.

100
Q

B12 is found in the liver of animals bound to a protein known as

A

methycobalamin

101
Q

Where does hydrolysis of methycobalamin occur

A

in the stomach by gastric acids or the intestines

102
Q

Following absorption of vitamin b12, it is transported to the liver in the blood bound to what?

A

To transcobalamin II

103
Q

What does vitamin b12 help in the production of?

A

Red blood cells

104
Q

Explain how the catabolism of some fatty acids and amino acids requires vitamin b12 as a coenzyme

A

The enzyme in this pathway, methylmalonyl coa mutase requires vitamin b12 as a cofactor in the conversion of methylmalonyl coa to succinyl coa

105
Q

Describe a second reaction which requires vitamin b12 as a coenzyme

A

Vitamin b12 catalyses the conversion of homocysteine to methionine and is catalysed by methionine synthase

106
Q

Why are vegetarians at a high risk of developing vitamin b12 deficiencies

A

Because plants do not produce b12

107
Q

A lack of vitamin b12 can lead to…

A

anemia

108
Q

How is vitamin c derived?

A

from glucose via the uronic acid pathway

109
Q

Why is ascorbic acid required in the diet?

A

Because the enzyme l-gulonolactone oxidase responsible for the conversion of gluconolactone to ascorbic acid is absent in primates

110
Q

What is the active form of vitamin c?

A

Ascorbate acid

111
Q

What is the main function of ascorbate acid?

A

A reducing agent in a number of different reactions

112
Q

Vitamin c has the potential to _____ cytochromes a and c of the respiratiory chain as well as ___________ _____

A

reduce, molecular oxygen

113
Q

What is the most important reaction requiring ascorbate as a cofactor?

A

The hydroxylation of proline residues in collagen

114
Q

Because vitamin c serves as a coenzyme in the hydroxylation of proline residues in collagen, it is required for the maintenance of

A

normal connective tissue

115
Q

Ascorbic acid is required for the reduction of iron 3 to iron 2 in the

A

gut, allowing iron to be absorbed into the bloodstream

116
Q

Ascorbic acid is required for the catabolism of which amino acid?

A

tyrosine

117
Q

Ascorbic acid is required for the synthesis of what?

A
  1. synthesis of epinephrine from tyrosine 2. synthesis of bile acids
118
Q

why is ascorbic acid required in the involvement in the process of steroidogenesis

A

The adrenal cortex contains high levels of vit c which are depleted upon adrenocorticotrophic hormone (acth) stimulation of the gland

119
Q

What is a deficiency of vitamin c called?

A

scurvy

120
Q

What is scurvy characterised by?

A

easily bruised skin, muscle fatigue, swollen gums

121
Q

What is the cause of a deficiency?

A

a poor diet/ increased requirement

122
Q

What is the primary physiological state leading to an increased requirement for vitamin c?

A

severe stress - this is due to a rapid depletion in the adrenal stores of the vitamin

123
Q

When was scurvy common?

A

Among sailors in the days when only non perishable foods could be stocked aboard ships

124
Q

What three biologically active molecules does vitamin a consist of?

A

Retinol, retinal and retinoic acid

125
Q

What plant precursor molecule is vitamin a derived from?

A

b-carotene

126
Q

What does b-carotene consist of

A

two molecules of retinal linked at their aldehyde ends

127
Q

What is b-carotene referred to as

A

the provitamin form of vit a

128
Q

Ingested b carotene is cleaved in the lumen of the small intestine by what enzyme to yield what produce

A

b-carotene dioxygenase to yield retinal

129
Q

How is retinal reduced to retinal?

A

by retinaldehyde reductase within the intestines

130
Q

Retinol can then be esterified to palmitic acid and delivered to the

A

blood

131
Q

Where is palmictic acid stored

A

stored in the liver as a liver ester with lipocytes

132
Q

The transport of retinol from the liver to extrahepatic tissues occurs how

A

by binding of retinol to aproretinol binding protein

133
Q

Where is the retinol-rbp complex transported to?

A

to the cell surface within the golgi complex and secreted

134
Q

How is plasma transport of retinoic acid accomplished

A

by binding to albumin

135
Q

The photoreceptor of most mammalian visual cells if a protein called

A

rhodopsin or visual purple

136
Q

What is rhodopsin a complex made of

A

scotopsin and the 11-cis-retinal form of vitamin a

137
Q

where is rhodopsin embedded

A

rhodopsin is a receptor embedded in the membrane of the rod cell

138
Q

when rhodopsin is exposed to light what happens?

A

it is bleached, releasing the 11-cis-retinal

139
Q

How is retional necessary for mucous production

A

it functions in the synthesis of certain glycoproteins and mucopolysaccharides

140
Q

where is vitamin a stored?

A

in the liver

141
Q

What are the symptoms of a vitamin a deficiency?

A

night blindness

142
Q

How does deterioration of the eye tissue due to a lack of vitamin a occur?

A

progressive keratinization of the cornea, a condition called xerophthalmia

143
Q

There is an increased risk of cancer when vitamin a is low, why?

A

Because vitamin a is thought to be a very effective antioxidant

144
Q

Excess accumulation of vitamin a in the liver can lead to

A

toxicity

145
Q

Vitamin d is what type of hormone

A

a steroid hormone

146
Q

what is the function of vitamin d

A

to regulate specific gene expression following interaction with its intracellular receptor

147
Q

what is the biologically active form of the hormone

A

vitamin d3 calcitriol

148
Q

what is the function of the biologically active hormone of vitamin d calcitriol?

A

functions primarily to regulate calcium and phosphorous homeostasis

149
Q

Where is active calcitriol derived from in plants?

A

from ergosterol which is produced in plants

150
Q

Where is active calcitriol derived from in humans?

A

from 7-dehydrocholestrol which is produced in the skin

151
Q

Ergocalciferol (vitamin d2) is formed by

A

uv irridation of ergosterol

152
Q

In the skin 7-dehydrocholestrol is converted to vitamin d3 following what?

A

irradiation

153
Q

Viamin e is a mixture of several related compounds known as

A

tocopherols

154
Q

what is the most potent molecule out of the tocopherols

A

the a-tocopherol

155
Q

vitamin e is absorbed from where

A

the intestines

156
Q

where is vitamin e delivered to once absorbed from the intestines

A

to the liver

157
Q

vitamin e has a lipophilic nature which means it accumulates where?

A

in cellular membranes, fat deposits and other circulating lipoproteins

158
Q

Where is the major site of vitamin e storage?

A

in the adipose tissue

159
Q

what is the function of vitamin e as a natural antioxidant

A

scavenging free radicals and molecular oxygen

160
Q

what is the major symptom of a vtiamin e deficiency in humans in relation to red blood cells?

A

it leads to an increase in red blood cell fragility

161
Q

What is the dietary requirement of pathothenic acid

A

10-15mg/day

162
Q

What is the dietary requirement of biotin

A

0.15-0.3mg/day

163
Q

What is the dietary requirement of thiamin

A

0.23mg or more per 1000kcal of food, min 0.8mg/day

164
Q

What is the dietary requirement of vitamin b6

A

1.5-2mg/day

165
Q

What is the dietary requirement of nicotinamide

A

7.5mg/day

166
Q

What is the dietary requirement of riboflavin

A

0.2-0.4mg/day

167
Q

What is the dietary requirement of vitamin b12

A

2 µg/day

168
Q

What is the dietary requirement for vitamin c

A

50-200mg/day

169
Q

What vitamin is this

A

Vitamin b1

170
Q

What vitamin is this

A

vit b2

171
Q

what is this

A

active form of b2 fmn flavin mononucleotide

172
Q

What is this

A

active form of vit b2 - flavin adenine dinucleotide

173
Q

what is this

A

niacin

174
Q

what is this

A

pantothenic acid

175
Q

what is this

A

acetyl coa

176
Q

what is this

A

pyridoxine

177
Q

what is this

A

pyridoxal phosphate

178
Q

what is this

A

b9/folic acid

179
Q

what is this

A

cobalamin

180
Q

what is this

A

arcorbic acid

181
Q

what is this

A

vit a

182
Q

what is this

A

vitamin d

183
Q

what vit is this

A

e

Biomolecules of Life (10 decks)

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