Virtue Ethics Flashcards

1
Q

Is Virtue Ethics Agent Centred or Action Based?

What does it provide?

A

Agent-centred - emphasizes the virtues, or moral character, in contrast to the approach that emphasizes duties or rules (deontology) or that emphasizes the consequences of actions (consequentialism).

It provides guidance as to the sort of characteristics and behaviours a good person will seek to embody.

Concerned with the whole of a person’s life, rather than particular episodes or actions

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2
Q

Is it Deontology or Teleology?

A
  • Neither

Doesn’t fit into teleology or deontology.

Teleology - based on consequentialism eg. utilitarianism;

Deontology - duty to rules, strict rule set eg. 10 commandments

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3
Q

What does it teach?

A

An action is only good if it is an action that a virtuous person would carry out in the same circumstances.

A virtuous person is a person who acts virtuously and someone only acts virtually if they possess and live the virtues.

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4
Q

Three things your character can be developed by doing:

A

Emulation (Copy your heroes.)

Education (wisdom and understanding)

Experience (learn from mistakes)

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5
Q

Difference between Virtue based theory and Action based theory?

A

Virtue-based theory: 1) we should acquire good character traits, not simply act on moral rules, 2) morality involves being a virtuous person

Action-based theory: 1) we should act properly by following moral rules, 2) we judge people based on how they act, not on whether they are virtuous people

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6
Q

5 Criticism of Action Based theory

A

Action-based ethics lack a motivational component.

Action-based ethics are founded on an obsolete theological-legal model.

Action-based ethics ignore the spontaneous dimension of ethics.

Action-based ethics neglect the development of character

Action-based overemphasize autonomy and neglect community.

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7
Q

4 key principles of Plato’s virtue theory

A

Moral theory centres around achieving the highest possible good. The cultivation of one’s soul.

Happiness derives from virtue and actions are good when they help achieve this.

He considered qualities such as temperance, courage, prudence and justice central. (these were later called the cardinal virtues)

All about wisdom; if we know the good - we do the good.

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8
Q

Aristotle on

  1. Aims
  2. How we become virtuous
A

There is an aim or telos to everything we do; some are superior aims (final goals) and some are subordinate aims (things we have to do to get them).

Everyone’s final aim is Eudaimonia - human flourishing for the whole of society.

Aristotle asserted that contemplation was the highest form of happiness and that we should use our reason to work out how to be virtuous. Practical wisdom (phronesis) is acquired through repetition and practice i.e. until virtuous behaviour becomes habitual.

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9
Q

Aristotle’s 2 types of Virtue

A

Moral virtues; developing a good character through habit and moral exemplars.

Intellectual virtues; developing a good mind through training and education.

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10
Q

Aristotle’s archer

A
  • In order to achieve Eudaimonia, we must practice like archers, aiming to hit the target.
  • By practicing we improve our skills or virtues, and at least if you aim and miss you will be more virtuous than not aiming.
  • All people had the potential to develop virtues; however only few will cultivate their potential into actual virtues.
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11
Q

Explain Arisotle’s golden mean and a few eg of moral virtues.

A

There are 12 moral virtues and each falls between two vices - that of excess and that of deficiency.

The position between these two vices is called the golden mean -

This mean is achieved through phronesis and so is not a statistical average but relative to the individual and circumstance.

Moral virtues: benevolence, fairness, kindness, conscientiousness, gratitude

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12
Q

Robert Arrington - Is Aristotle putting forward a theory of moderation?

A

Aristotle is not putting forward a theory of moderation.

Aristotle argues that certain situations should cause you to feel immense fear or pleasure or pain but we must know when is the right time/place/circumstance.

In a certain situation the golden mean might require immense anger or pity and that is not a theory of moderation.

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13
Q

Distinction between Aristotle’s virtue ethics and Plato’s?

A

Plato - knowledge was a virtue, knowing the right thing to do will automatically lead you to make the right decision. Wisdom was a basic virtue and with that the others came. Theory based

Aristotle - wisdom was virtuous but achieving virtue was not automatic. Wisdom is the goal achieved only after effort and unless a person chose to think and act virtuously, the other virtues were out of reach. Knowing good was not enough, one had to force themselves into the habit of doing good. Practical Application

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14
Q

3 Strengths of Aristotle’s theory

A
  • Appeals to both secular and religious morality - an atheist can aspire to be like Jesus without believing he was the son of God.
  • An altruistic approach is a virtuous approach.
  • VE focuses on the agent’s moral development, meaning the individual has the power.
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15
Q

4 Weaknesses of Aristotle’ VE.

A

Robert Louden Criticism - it is impossible to practically apply Aristotle’s theory of finding the golden mean in ethical dilemmas. It provides us with no sturdy answers like deontological or consequentialist.

Aristotle’s concepts of virtue are overly general, rigid and out of date - It focuses more on the masculine attributes

VE is inherently subjective and although Aristotle recognises that the good of the polis/community outweighs that of the individual, VE fails to recognise that certain acts (rape/murder) are intrinsically immoral.

Some virtues could be employed for immoral purposes. When does a virtue become a vice? Who is qualified to say that?

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16
Q

Aquinas’ virtue ethics

A

Believes in the four “cardinal values”, the principle habits on which the rest of the values hinge.

Cardinal values provide the general template for the most salient forms of moral activity.

He also has the Theological values; faith, hope and charity which are associated with the salvation resulting from the grace of God. They cannot be obtained through human effort, but are infused into our souls by God alone.

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17
Q

Michael Slote

What distinction does he make?

How does this differ from Aristotle?

A

Virtue/agent-focused (Aristotle, if a virtuous person would do it then its virtuous. focused on outcome of action)

Virtue/agent-based (His view, focus on motivation).

Aristotle says it is simply enough to do the right thing because it is what a virtuous person would do. Slote says, we must do the right thing because we ourselves are virtuous. The intentions matter for Slote

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18
Q

Michael Slote

Henry Sidgwick Example

A

If a lawyer prosecutes someone who deserves to be prosecuted but solely for the reason that they have a personal vendetta against them. Is it still right?

Slote would say no because his motivations are not right.

Aristotle would say yes because it is what a virtuous person would do.

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19
Q

Michael Slote

Morality as Inner Strength

A

Slote characterises virtue as an inner trait or disposition of the individual” – an “inner strength” if you will.

There is something intrinsically virtuous about inner strength.

However, if the inner strength does not help one to be kind and honest to others, then it cannot function as a general groundwork for morality.

Slote develops his investigation into warm agent-based ethics by exploring this idea of benevolence.

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20
Q

Michael Slote

Warm v cool agents

A

Cool” agent-based virtue ethics are based on virtues such as health and strength, which have no clear link to altruism.

Warm” agent-based virtue ethics are based on ideas like compassion and benevolence, which build altruistic human concern explicitly into their foundations.

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21
Q

Feminist Attack of Virtue ethics

(nothing very feminist about it to be honest)

A

Carol Gilligan Nell Noddings Annette Baier

Gilligan contends that moral philosophy has always been patriarchal principally because, in general, men have written it.

She argues that men tend to conceive morality in terms of rights, justice, and autonomy (Aristotle’s virtues) whereas women more frequently think of the moral in terms of caring. (she has since denied there is a inherent link more cultural)

Annette Baier advocates a view of ethics that incorporates our natural biases (e.g. the love of a mother for her children)

22
Q

Slote response to feminist criticism of VE

A

Arisotelian VE is not varied enough.

agent-based approaches – such as morality as caring – are the most promising developments in this respect.

other forms of normativity—eg the value of eudaimonia—are traced back to and ultimately explained in terms of the motivations of agents.

Slote defines rightness and wrongness in terms of agents’ motivations

ie. ‘masculine’ morals do not have any more value than ‘feminine’ its all down to the motivations.

23
Q

Zagzebeski on right and wrong acts

A

Zagzebski likewise defines right and wrong actions by reference to the emotions, motives, and dispositions of hypothetical virtuous and vicious agents.

Her definitions of duties, good and bad ends, and good and bad states of affairs are similarly grounded in the motivational and dispositional states of exemplary agents

24
Q

Distinctions between Slote and Zagzebski

A

For Slote what matters is this particular agent’s actual motives and dispositions. The goodness of action A, for example, is derived from the agent’s motives when she performs A. If those motives are good then the action is good, if not then not.

On Zagzebski’s account, by contrast, a good or bad, right or wrong action is defined not by this agent’s actual motives but rather by whether this is the sort of action a virtuously motivated agent would perform.

Aristotle doesnt care about motivations at all tho.

25
Q

Rosalind Hurthouse

3 General Points

A

Strong advocate for Aristotelian approach to morality: Virtues are virtuous because they help a person achieve Eudaimonia.

  • Virtues can be defined as things that contribute to achieving Eudaimonia.

Life in accordance with virtue is necessary for Eudaimonia. Therefore according to Virtue ethicists, a life devoted to physical pleasure is a wasted life.

26
Q

Rosalind Hurthouse

Principle contribution to VE.

What does she think about how we get virtue?

A

Criticism: Robert Louden, states that it is impossible to apply Aristotle’s theory of finding the means between extremes in moral dilemmas.

Her Response: Although the theory doesn’t explicitly state how a person should act, it does show what a virtuous person would think about this issue.

The answer comes from rules and principles which do occur in virtue ethics. Every virtue generates a positive instruction while every vice creates a prohibition. The answer is not to say, What would this virtuous person do? But to say If I did this, would I be acting justly or unjustly?

She affirms that with practice of employing out virtues our reasoning will enable us to become virtuous people

27
Q

Elizabeth Anscombe

4 key points

A

Criticised theories based on strict rules/laws. Anscombe asserts that these approaches result in a rigid and inflexible moral code, that we blindly follow with no active consideration. (eg Utilitarianism and Kant’s deontology)

She emphasised Aristotle’s concept of eudaimonia/flourishing as you will be in your best state if you live through virtue ethics towards eudaimonia.

Rules meant something when we live off the authority of God but nowadays it is not assumed that God exists so blindly following rigid rules is meaningless.

She brings in the importance of emotions, moral psychology and its analysis of character.

28
Q

Bernard Williams

1929-2003

A

Drew a Distinction between morality and ethics

Morality is chategorised by deontological aspects, primarily things like duty and obligation. The good life is sometimes dependent on things outside our control, eg luck.

Williams takes a wider concept, Ethics and rejects the narrow concept of morality. Ethics encompasses emotions, family and friends and social justice. Compatible with Eudaimonia.

But does this take away free will?

29
Q

What is different about Foot’s theory?

A

Morality is about how to live well, not a series of caluculated decisions.

It is about a lifetime endeavour to become someone who does virtuous things.

She redefined virtues to be “Excellences of will”

Virtues are only virtuous as long as they are used to bring about an outcomes that benefits the community.

Virtue is an end in itself.

30
Q

What does Foot want of Ethics?

What 3 things does ​Phillipa Foot split virtue into?

A

Thinks ethics should seek to make the world a better place

  • A virtue is a disposition of the Will
  • A virtue is beneficial either to others or the possessor of the virtue
  • A virtue is corrective of some bad general human tendency.
  • she agreed with Aristotle but brought his theory into the 21st century

Virtues should benefit both the individual and the community

31
Q

What does Phillipa Foot adress more in her theory than other theorists?

A

She addressed the circumstances of actions and whether the vice belongs to the person’s character when considering the ability to overcome vices.

Eg a person is more virtuous if they are poor and overcome stealing than a rich person. Or they are more virtuous if they overcome the desire to steal rather than someone who never considered stealing.

32
Q

Can virtues change according to Foot?

A

Courage may be seen as a virtue and a vice in different situations. This proves that certain virtues can be seen as vices in different circumstances and they are not fixed.

Eg a burglar stealing things needs courage, but it becomes a bad thing – a vice.

33
Q

difference between Foot and Aristotle?

A

She had a much more egalitarian view than Aristotle, she rejected pride as a virtue whereas Aristotle regarded pride as one of the most important virtues.

Which shows her slight preference for Christian virtue ethics.

34
Q

Alisdair MacIntyre

What does he think is wrong with current moral philosophy and what would he change?

A

Focused on the failure of current moral philosophy and he believes we should bring back the idea of human telos.

Focused on the essence of ideality and ‘self’ which he believes is lost in the post-enlightenment period. Currently, There is an emphasis on the individual rather than the community, leading to a dislocated and emotivist sense of self.

Different lists of virtues are attributed to different cultures and the more we have the closer we are to finding the definite true ones. We need to look at cultural context to understand the virtues.

35
Q

What does MacIntyre want us to change or think?

A

To better understand yourself you should understand your flourishing, and we have lost our understanding of ourselves because we have lost our understanding of our position in society.

You must think of your life as a ‘narrative unity’ you can better understand yourself and reach flourishing, if you think about your life as a story, fitting into a narrative with everyone else’s.

You can’t just look out for yourself because all of your virtues are defined by your interactions with others.

36
Q

MacIntyre’s idea of telos and how he defines virtue.

A

He develops the idea of the telos; we all engage in practices - each engaged with their own inherent good. You can build on that and cultivate through habit.

He defines virtue as a human quality that we gain, when we have that human quality it tends to let us achieve those goods (virtue) and keep getting the virtue again and again.

For example, you can never know you are courageous if you haven’t done anything courageous - policy of action.

37
Q

MacIntyre’s 3 characters

A

Creates ideas of 3 characters within society.

The manager, the dominant figure, ruthless, searching for his goals, exploits others.

The rich aesthete enjoys more exciting and exotic pleasures of life.

The therapist, relieving the frustrations of the manager and aesthete - but is the best deceiver of them all.

They are all in excess and vice.

38
Q

How would MacIntyre define Virtue?

A

Virtues are exercised within practices that are coherent social forms of activity and seek to realise goods internal to the activity.

Eg the knowledge gained from pharmeceutical research would constitute an internal good, whereas the money generated from sales of a new drug would be an external good.

External goods always involve an element of competetition; internal goods contrubte to the whole community.

His virtues: courage, temperance, industriousness, Hope, patience, justice and wisdom.

39
Q

MacIntyre’s inner self and similarity with Aristotle

A

MacIntyre places a lot of emphasis on the internal character staying strong and not submitting to any of the people who create these illusions.

The one who focuses on his inner self and his motivations in order (essential nature), is not corrupted by vices and illusions.

· (same thing) Aristotle says there are two men in your mind. A man as he happens to be, just as he is and a man as he could be, if he realised his essential nature.

40
Q

Difference between Aristotle and MacIntyre?

A

Aristotle says that virtues are independent of culture and context; they are constant.

MacIntyre says they are all relative to culture and change.

However, his recent work has become more in line with Aristotle and Aquinas as he says there is now at least one culturally independent virtue; being an independent rational agent.

41
Q

3 General Strengths of VE

A

Holistic view of human nature. Reason is applied through phronesis or practical wisdom but the emotions are not ignored.

Character-based. Habits of character are central, developed through training.

Morality as a social construct. Virtue Ethics sees morality as grounded in a view of A. human nature and B. the social concept of the “good life”

42
Q

4 General Weaknesses of Virtue Ethics

+ Scholar quotes

A

Nonsensical - seems so strange that virtuous things become virtuous by virtuous people doing them rather than the other way around.

Relativistic. we cannot agree what the key virtues are, which differ from culture to culture “Aristotle saw pride as a special virtue, Christians see it as a master vice”. Rachels

Lack of Guidance: Decisions are difficult. “It is not obvious how we should go about deciding what to do” Rachels

Conflicting virtues. What happens when virtues conflict, for example, when honesty and kindness conflict, or honesty and loyalty to one’s friends? “It only leaves you wondering which virtue takes precedence”, concludes Rachels.

43
Q

Pojman Quote on VE

A

virtue ethics has the problem of application: it doesn’t tell us what to do in particular instances in which we most need direction” .

44
Q

Criticism: Lack of Guidance.

3 Responses…

A

MacIntyre, there are no absolute answers to the moral questions. Contemporary ethics has distanced itself from real people and real issues by debating fine legalistic points, which they will never agree on. Virtue Ethics asks a much more important question - what sort of person should I be? .

Contrary to MacIntyre, Nussbaum argues that there are absolutes. However, it is virtues that have value, not rules. We should strive for Justice, Wisdom, Temperance etc. rather than looking for absolute rules.

The virtuous person works as an example and therefore can guide action.

45
Q

Criticism of VE: Self Centredness

Response…

A

Virtues are ‘other-regarding’.

It is about how we respond to the needs of others. The virtuous person is looking to develop the right sort of character that will help them respond to the needs of other and of society in the appropriate way.

The good of the agent and the good of others are not separate.

This can be seen in Aristotle’s insistence that morality functions in the polis, in the community.

46
Q

Criticism of VE - moral luck; Moral luck ie. it is easier to become virtuous if we have had the right education, good influences and virtuous people in our lives. This is a matter of luck, rather than choice.

Response

A

Virtue ethicists accept this. We are not immune from luck in our lives.

The good life is fragile and this is a feature of morality. It makes the acquisition of virtue even more important. Vulnerability to losing virtue as well as gaining it is an essential feature of our human condition.

Hence we must recognise that the attainment of the good life is the most valuable of all things.

47
Q

no.1 Major Criticism of VE

A

Values are dependent on rules: Virtue Ethics is accused of rejecting moral absolutes such as ‘Do not lie’, while valuing the virtue of honesty.

Critics claim that the virtues are really another way of stating moral rules, and that the virtues depend on the existence of these rules.

Honesty is precisely a virtue because it is wrong to lie. This sort of criticism can lead to a circular debate, but it is actually the biggest threat to the virtue theorist.

48
Q

Applied Virtue Ethics

Euthanasia

Aristotle and MacIntyre.

A

Aristotle believes we should aim for eudaimonia - life of perfect balance. People suffering greatly from illness would not be living an eudaimon life.

Aristotle puts the wellbeing of society above the individual, and it may be argued that there are huge financial benefits to society if those who were unproductive were euthanized. However, this doesn’t seem to fit in with Aristotle’s virtues of patience, modesty and temperance

MacIntyre, is a relativist virtue ethicist, might argue that in Britain we are moving towards a change in law regarding euthanasia but in more religious countries we are not.

49
Q

Euthanasia Case Study

A

Jack Kevorkian (1928-2011) helped over 100 people to die. In 1999, Kevorkain was arrested and tried for his direct role in a case of voluntary euthanasia. He was convicted of second-degree murder and was let out after 8 years of his 10-25 year sentence.

50
Q

Applied Ethics

Abortion

A

Rosalind Hurthouse - “virtue theory can correct many of the injustices that the emphasis on women’s rights is rightly concerned about”

VE places importance on how we might develop virtues (eg strength and courage) in relation to abortion (as a man or a woman)

51
Q

What are the principles public officials are supposed to happen?

A

The 7 Nolan Principles

  1. Selflessness
  2. Integrity
  3. Objectivity
  4. Accountability
  5. Openness
  6. Honesty
  7. Leadership