Virtue Ethics

Question 1

What is the “good life” for humans?

Answer 1

The good life for humans is:
an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue (or if there are more than one kind of virtue, in accordance with the best and most perfect kind). It is a life fill of actions chosen according to good reason.

Question 2

Explain what virtues (arete) are

Answer 2

Virtues are character traits or dispositions that enable us to choose our actions according to good reason.
For example, just as the arete of sharpness helps a knife to fulfil its ergon to cut things, the arete of virtues help humans to fulfil their ergon, which is to choose actions according to reason.

Question 3

On what does virtue ethics focus?

Answer 3

Agent-Centred (it is about the person)

Question 4

What are the four causes of Aristotle?

Answer 4

This account is general in the sense that it applies to everything that requires an explanation, including artistic production and human action.

The material cause: “that out of which”, e.g., the bronze of a statue.

The formal cause: “the form”, “the account of what-it-is-to-be”, e.g., the shape of a statue.

The efficient cause: “the primary source of the change or rest”, e.g., the artisan, the art of bronze-casting the statue, the man who gives advice, the father of the child.

The final cause: “the end, that for the sake of which a thing is done”, e.g., health is the end of walking, losing weight, purging, drugs, and surgical tools.

Question 5

The Good for Human beings

Answer 5

A good – multiple things can be a good to us (music, sport, friendship)

The good – just one thing is the final end/highest good (summun bonum = highest good)

Question 6

Explain what is meant by “Eudaimonia”

Answer 6

• The ultimate goal of life/the final end (valuable for its own sake)
• “living well” or “flourishing”
• objective
• a life of rational activity

Eudaimonia is not just about following moral laws (Kantian Ethics), or being happy (Utilitarianism), or being successful - it is about all these things combined. Eudaimonia is a life someone wants for themself (it is desirable, enjoyable, valuable)

Question 7

Arete

Answer 7

excellence/virtue
- it enables a thing to achieve its ergon

Question 8

Ergon

Answer 8

function/characteristic activity of a thing

Question 9

What are the possible candidates for the Good for Humans?

Answer 9

• Wealth (merely a means to and end)
• Honour (honour is given to you; eudaimonia is not)
• Pleasure (life of nothing but pleasure is a life fit for cattle)
• Goodness

Question 10

Vices

Answer 10

a disposition possessed by bad or “vicious” people

Question 11

Aristotle´s soul

Answer 11

Non-rational:
Character (desires) –> excellence of character –> courage, patience, modesty

Nutritive (body) –> excellence of the body

Rational:
Theoretical reason –> excellence of theoretical reasoning –> maths, philosophy, wisdom

Practical reason –> excellence of practical reasoning –> practical wisdom, deliberation, understanding

Question 12

What are the four different types of virtues?

Answer 12

Moral virtue
Performance virtue
Civic virtue (virtues that keep people happy be they satisfy their societal and moral needs)
Intellectual virtue (cognitive ability, the ability to reason well)

Question 13

Explain habituation in the context of virtue ethics

Answer 13

education; doing something over and over again to learn it

We develop virtues through habit and training.

Question 14

Explain the skill analogy

Answer 14

Aristotle compares the development of a virtue with the development of a particular skill.

• Initial observation (guidance + input by an expert)
• Starting to practice the skill (difficult + painful)
• Getting better through practice and habit (pleasurable)
• The move from dependence on the expert to independence

Question 15

The importance of feelings when doing something virtuous

Answer 15

Do I experience internal conflict?
Yes – not virtuous
No – virtuous

Someone who is virtuous is able to respond appropriately to the emotion – the feelings that bear down on us, that flow through us, that drive us – and is then able to act appropriately in the light of that emotion.

Question 16

Explain the doctrine of the mean

Answer 16

It says that virtues are the intermediate or average (the mean) between two extremes.

Vice of deficiency - Virtue - Vice of excess
Cowardice - Courage - Recklessness
Shy - Modest - Shameless
Stingy - Liberal - Wasteful

A virtues act is one that makes us feel or act towards the right person, to the right extent, at the right time, in the right way and for the right reason

Question 17

Explain the function argument

Answer 17

We call something good if it performs its function well. Everything has a function, which is a thing´s distinctive characteristic. The distinctive characteristic of humans is reason. What will enable humans to fulfil their function of reasoning well is whatever qualities help us to have good reasons for our actions (virtues).

• Nutrition and growth is shared with plants. It is important for our survival, however, it is not distinct to us and therefore cannot be our function.
• Sentience or perception cannot be our function because it is also shared with animals.

Question 18

What characterises someone as virtuous in Aristotle´s view?

Answer 18

They are able to feel or act towards the right person, to the right extent, at the right time, for the right reason, in the right way.

This is not easy and not everyone can do it. This is why virtuous people are rare.

Question 19

Explain the difference between utilitarianism/Kantian ethics and virtue ethics

Answer 19

Aristotle answers a slightly different question to Kant and utilitarianism. Instead of answering “what should I do?” (action-centred) he addresses a question more like “what sort of person should I be?” (agent-centred).
Instead of defining a good person as someone who does good actions, Aristotle would define good actions as those done by good people.

Question 20

What does Aristotle suggest is the ergon of humans?

Answer 20

Aristotle says it is to use reason.
Reason is what makes us unique from all other things, especially animals.

Question 21

What does Aristotle mean by: “One swallow does not make a summer, neither does one fine day”

Answer 21

He means that ONE virtues act does not make you a virtuous person, but also ONE vicious act does not make you a bad person.

Question 22

Explain phronesis (practical wisdom)

Answer 22

It is a general understanding of good such that the person can think through and act according to what is good. The person with phronesis will understand and deliberate as to what is required in each particular situation and, in the end, able to act on that deliberation.
Practical wisdom enables us to feel or act towards the right person, to the right extent, at the right time, in the right way and for the right reason

Question 23

Outline moral responsibility in virtue ethics

Answer 23

Aristotle says we should only praise or condemn actions if they are done voluntarily (you cannot criticise someone for acting unvirtuously if their actions were not freely chosen).

Voluntary (intended): acting with full knowledge and intention

Involuntary (contrary to intention): compulsion, meaning to do something you do not want to do

Non-voluntary (unintended): Ignorance, meaning doing something you do not want to do by accident; you did not know all the facts

Question 24

Name issues with virtue ethics

Answer 24

• The circularity issue
• Individual good and the moral good
• Must a trait contribute to eudaimonia in order to be a virtue?
• Clear guidance?
• Clashing/competing virtues

Question 25

Explain the problem of clear guidance in virtue ethics

Answer 25

The doctrine of the mean is not very practical.
For example, Aristotle would say it is correct to act angrily sometimes – but when exactly? And how angry are you supposed to get before it crosses over from a virtue to a vice of excess?

The doctrine of the mean does not give actual quantities (like the CI or hedonic calculus do), only vague descriptions as “not too much” and “not too little”

However, Aristotle did not create virtue ethics to provide a clear set of rules. Life is complicated and that is the whole reason why we need to develop practical wisdom. We could also re-evaluate situations that already happend to develop our responses.
The non-existence of a specific course of action does not mean it provides no guidance whatsoever.

Question 26

Explain the circularity issue with virtue ethics

Answer 26

Aristotle cannot define what a virtuous act is

1. A virtuous act is something a virtuous person would do
2. And a virtuous person is a person who does virtuous acts

These descriptions are circular and so say nothing meaningful about what a virtuous person or a virtuous act actually is.

Question 27

Explain the issue of competing virtues in virtues ethics

Answer 27

We can imagine scenarios where applying two different virtues (e.g. justice and mercy) would suggest two different courses of action.
For example, if you’re a judge and someone has stolen something, you have to choose between the virtue of justice (i.e. punishing the criminal) and the virtue of mercy (i.e. letting the criminal go). You can’t choose to do both things, so whichever choice you make will be unvirtuous in some way.

However, Aristotle would reply that conflicting virtues are impossible. This is because the correct virtue and in what amount depends on the circumstances. Practical wisdom will allow the person to make the right decision according to this specific situation.

Question 28

Apply virtue ethics to simulated killing

Answer 28

If a person spends a lot of time playing video games that involve simulated killing then they may develop bad habits (or do not develop good habits/virtues).
However, simulated killing can also involve partaking in society or in competitions. This would not be unvirtuous.
Overall, it all depends on the context.

Question 29

Apply virtue ethics to telling lies

Answer 29

Aristotle identifies truth as a fine and praiseworthy thing, and falsehood in itself as bad an reprehensible.
Lying about oneself always results in a deficiency but telling the truth - being a sincere man - is the golden mean.

However, Aristotle also describes degrees to which lying is permissible. Lying to protect your reputations is not as bad as lying to gain money.

Therefore, it always depends on the circumstances and the virtues person will know what to do.

Question 30

Apply virtue ethics to stealing

Answer 30

Aristotle that stealing never falls within the golden mean. Stealing is an injustice because it deprives a person what is justly and fairly theirs.

Aristotle also distinguishes between unjust actions and unjust state of affairs. The starving child for who you steal is an unjust state of affairs (an unfortunate situation). According to Aristotle, it is much worse to deliberately and freely choose to commit unjust actions, even if you are committing these to counteract unjust state of affairs.

Question 31

Apply virtue ethics to eating animals

Answer 31

Eudaimonia is concerned with the good life for human beings. Animals are not capable of reasoning and therefore eudaimonia does not apply to them. Overall, from Aristotle´s point of view eating animals is not an issue.

However, some philosophers argue that it always depends on how the animals are treated. But to completely ignore the fact that animals can have a good or bad life would demonstrate the vices of callousness and selfishness.
Therefore, eating animals can fall within the golden mean, but not always.

Question 32

Explain the issues of the difference between eudaimonia and moral good in virtue ethics

Answer 32

Eudaimonia includes elements beyond simply being moral (such as honour, wealth, and happiness). However, we often make a distinction between a good life for ME (eudaimonia) and a MORALLY good life.

A nurse who hated her job but continued because she believed it was needed, but then died young clearly did not achieve eudaimonia but lived a morally good life (helping everyone).
Therefore, virtue ethics fails as an account of what morality is.

However, Aristotle was never trying to answer what a morally good life is. Eudaimonia is only concerned with the good life in general (human flourishing). Also being moral plays a part in achieving eudaimonia. So, being morally good is helpful, but not sufficient for eudaimonia.

Question 33

Explain the term “ethica arete”

Answer 33

excellence of moral virtue

Question 34

Explain the relationship between virtue, actions and reason

Answer 34

Aristotle argues that virtue is formed by voluntary actions that are the result of a special kind of internal thought process, namely choice.
- Choice implies a rational principle and thought