Varieties of Civilizations: Eurasia and the Americas

Question 1

Why is the Song dynasty of China often referred to as a “golden age?”

Answer 1

The Song dynasty set the standards of excellence in poetry, landscape painting, ceramics, and even debated new forms of Confucian philosophy.

Question 2

Describe the state structure of the Song dynasty.

Answer 2

An agency called the Censorate oversaw the government, checking on both character and competence of public officials. The examination system used to determine these officials was revived and made more elaborate due to the ability to print books for the first time. (As a result, increasing the number of schools and universities for upper class men, and the occasional sponsored “common” man.)

Question 3

List at least five (5) features of the Chinese economy around 1200 C.E.

Answer 3

1. Arrowheads
2. Coins
3. Bells
4. Printed books
5. Waterways
6. Promissory notes
7. Navigational technologies
8. Gunpowder

Question 4

Describe China’s economic revolution.

Answer 4

Under the Song dynasty, the population doubled from approx. 50 million to approx. 120 million. Cities grew, industrial production soared, metallurgy output increased (16 million iron arrowheads annually plus coins, bells, etc), inventions in printing led to books. Gunpowder, navigation, and shipbuilding led to revolutions in military affairs, and all of this was fueled by coal.

Production for the market over local consumption

Question 5

How did the lives of women change during the Song dynasty?

Answer 5

The weaving of textiles, especially silk became the work of men in urban workshops and state factories. Previously, it had been the work of rural women in their homes. Foot binding became widespread and seen as a rite of passage. Property rights expanded, as did education (to better raise sons).

Question 6

What was the capital of China during the Song dynasty, and how many people did it hold?

Answer 6

Hangzhou held over one million people.

Question 7

How does foot binding demonstrate the tightening of patriarchy throughout the Song dynasty?

Answer 7

Foot binding became associated with the image of female beauty, emphasizing small size, frailty, submission, and restricting women to the “inner quarters.”

Question 8

Describe the relationship between Korea and China.

Answer 8

Korea participated in a tributary relationship with a giving of gifts and receiving of bestowals. Korea adopted Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism, artistic and literary styles.
China’s model of female behavior resulted in an erosion of Korean female customs (husbands buried on the wife’s family’s plot, remarried widows and divorced women, female inheritance of property, births in the home of a woman’s family…).

Question 9

List cultural aspects of Korea that remained uninfluenced by China.

Answer 9

A Chinese-style examination system never gained the prominence it held in China, allowing the aristocratic class to maintain a strong hold on bureaucratic office. Korea developed its own alphabet called hangul, and many influences past Buddhism never penetrated the lives of peasants or slaves.

Question 10

Describe the relationship between Vietnam and China.

Answer 10

Vietnam adopted Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism, artistic and literary styles. Post-1200, the Red River valley of the Vietnamese cultural heartland gained independence from China, yet it continued to participate in a tributary relationship to maintain its independence.
The Chinese-based examination system served a greater purpose in Vietnam, and the country saw itself as a southern extension of China. Rulers claimed the Mandate of Heaven and styled themselves as emperors.

Question 11

List cultural aspects of Vietnam that remained uninfluenced by China.

Answer 11

Vietnam contained a distinctive language, developed a variation of writing called chu nom, and women maintained a distinctive role in social and economic life.

Question 12

Describe the relationship between Japan and China.

Answer 12

Japan found the bureaucratic system of China useful and voluntarily adapted it. Tribute to China (outside private parties and monks) stopped after the tenth century. Chinese culture- such as Buddhism, the writing system, and poetry- was popular among the elite.

Question 13

List cultural aspects of Japan that remained uninfluenced by China.

Answer 13

Japan never matched the bureaucratic state of China, as aristocratic families held the power in courts and provinces.
Samurai warriors and Bushido contrasted with China’s emphasis on intellectual achievements and the prestige of holding office.
While Buddhism took hold around the country, it never replaced kami (sacred spirits associated with human ancestors and natural phenomena), a tradition that provided legitimacy to the imperial family.
Japan also contained a unique writing system, and as the power of the courts faded away they became known for their splendor.

Question 14

Describe bushido.

Answer 14

Bushido is a Japanese term that means “the way of the warrior,” and describes a preference of death over surrender.

Question 15

Describe the influence of Confucianism on women in Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.

Answer 15

In Korea, women lost many privileges due to Chinese models on family life.
In Vietnam, women maintained a strong presence in social and economic life.
In Japan, women of the courts lived a splendorous life and largely escaped the oppression of Confucianism.

Question 16

Describe the spread of Islam.

Answer 16

Around 1000 Turkic-speaking groups led conquest in India, Anatolia, and the Balkans.
By 1200, the Islamic world spread from Spain to India with its heartland in the Middle East and Egypt. Merchants and missionaries continued to interact in Southeast and Central Asia along with sub-Saharan Africa.

Question 17

What is the Abbasid caliphate?

Answer 17

This was an Arab dynasty that ruled since 750, built their capital in Baghdad, and presided over a flourishing Islamic civilization before losing political power to local governors and military commanders.

Question 18

Describe both continuity and change in pastoral societies after the rise of Islam.

Answer 18

Continuity: Pastoral societies continued to seek access to the wealth and goods of larger civilizations. The continued exchange between pastoral societies and other people can be seen in the adoption of Islam by the Turks as they served as slave soldiers to the Muslims.
Change: Where there had previously been an element of exchange and a relationship between the two, pastoral societies began to take over civilizations. Turkic-speaking people took over the fractured Islamic heartland and united it, and the Mongols ended the Abbasid caliphate and took over Persia.

Question 19

Describe the significance of the Ottoman Empire.

Answer 19

Politically, the Ottoman Empire acquired a large Christian population and the city of Constantinople. It spread through Egypt, North Africa, and past the eastern Black Sea.
Economically, only the Ming dynasty of China and Incas matched it during the fifteenth century.
Culturally, the Turks became the dominant people over an Islamic world that contained a diverse population due to its large size.

Question 20

How did Islam differ in Spain and India?

Answer 20

The introduction of Islam in India was violent and resulted in the Sultanate of Delhi in the north. It never claimed more than 20-25% of the population at any given time.

In Spain, Muslims, Christians, and Jews mixed more freely compared to India. Much of the population decidedly converted to Islam (up to 75%) or took part in its culture. Eventually, non-Muslims or converted Muslims were seen as second-class and became outcasts.

Question 21

List features of the Delhi sultanate.

Answer 21

Politically, Muslims largely governed the area and imposed a tax on non-Muslims.
Culturally, Muslims lived relatively separately. Sufis (holy men) were important in converting Hindus and Buddhists as India valued god-filled men detatched from worldly affairs.

Question 22

Provide four examples of ways in which dominant cultures treat “outsiders.”

Answer 22

Muslims in India: Muslims robbed and destroyed Hindu and Buddhist temples.
Muslims in Spain: Non-Muslims, including converts, were second-class citizens, segregated, and persecuted.
Christians in Spain: Muslims were outlawed, Christian converts banished, and Jews were exiled.
Crusades: Muslims and Jews were slaughtered in Jerusalem.

Question 23

What was al-Andalus?

Answer 23

al-Andalus was what Muslims called Spain.

Question 24

What was the capital of the Byzantine Empire?

Answer 24

Constantinople was the capital.

Question 25

Describe the legacy of the Byzantine Empire.

Answer 25

Politically, Byzantium was structured like that of the Roman Empire (roads, taxes, military, courts, laws…).
Culturally, those within the Byzantine Empire referred to themselves as Roman, and the Empire sought to preserve the legacy of classical Greco-Roman civilization.
Economically, Byzantium consisted of Greece, the Balkans, and Anatolia, along with maintaining a strong presence in both the Mediterranean and Black Sea.

Question 26

Describe caesaropapism.

Answer 26

This is a relationship in which the church and government are closely related, as seen between the emperor and Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire.

Question 27

How did Eastern Orthodox Christianity differ from Roman Catholicism?

Answer 27

Eastern Orthodox Christianity claimed the emperor to be god-anointed, and all the followers to be “right-thinking” Christians. The emperor was both head of state and the pope, allowing him to make decisions about doctrine, appoint the patriarch (leader of the church), and generally treat the church as a government department.
Roman Catholicism remained independent from the government and was headed by the pope.

Question 28

Describe the Crusades.

Answer 28

The Crusades were “holy wars” started by the pope in 1095 against Islam. They were greatly supported in Western Europe where they were viewed as wars providing security against the enemies of Christianity.

Question 29

How did the Kievan Rus adopt Eastern Orthodox Christianity?

Answer 29

As the Rus grew, Prince Vladimir of Kiev began to search for a religion to both unify the people and link them to networks of communication with the rest of the world. Over time, people began to follow the rulers to the church while maintaining elements of tradition.

Question 30

Describe the relationship between the Byzantine Empire and its neighbors.

Answer 30

Ottoman Empire: Conquered Syria, Egypt, and North Africa. Seized Constantinople in 1453, ending the Byzantine Empire.
Western Europe: Launched the Crusades and ruled Byzantium for half a century, from 1200-1250 approx.
Kievan Rus: Adopted Eastern Orthodox Christianity and borrowed architecture, the Cyrillic alphabet, and various religious icons.

Question 31

Identify periods of political unity and division in the European / Mediterranean world.

Answer 31

Before 1000, feudalism and manorialism were widely exercised.
Around 1000, Monarchs began to gain authority, forming states and city-states that were frequently at war.
During the High Middle Ages, populations grew, serfs began to gain independence, various new lines of work formed (guilds), and innovation in technology and agriculture increased.

Question 32

Why was Europe unable to achieve the political unity that China experienced?

Answer 32

Mountain ranges, peninsulas, and islands made geographical unification difficult. In addition, feudalism was apparent in many regions. This is when nobles give their allegiance to a king. Independent, self-sufficient and isolated estates/manors were owned by lords and worked in by serfs and their families as peasant laborers. In exchange, the serf families would receive a small farm and protection. Power came through land and wealth, leading to an unstable and violent world.
In China, power was given to the intelligent and moral through an organized examination system. The land was geographically welcoming; and a central government established with strong leaders and no other competing powers, such as the church.

Question 33

What was significant about the Roman Catholic Church in Western Europe?

Answer 33

The Roman Catholic Church was the only influence that stretched across the entire region. Due to its hierarchical organization, there was a representative in every community.

Question 34

Describe the differences in the function of cities in Europe and cities in China.

Answer 34

In Europe, cities were far more independent with wealthy merchants creating and enforcing laws. Cities tended to have their own government, courts, laws, and some were nearly city-states. This was due to the frequent competition between kings and aristocrats.
In China, cities were larger and part of the state-meaning they were all under the same government. They exercised few special privileges, Landowners held the power over merchants, and cities were connected by interstate commerce/travel.

Question 35

How did European civilization change after 1000?

Answer 35

Europe went through a period called the High Middle Ages. This was a time of rapid population growth and the formation of new villages on what were previously forest and marshes. Warmer summer months allowed for herding in wild highland regions, and many serfs gained their freedom due to an increase in state power.
Technological breakthroughs included the heavy wheeled plow on the dense soils of Northern Europe, the use of iron horseshoes, horse collars, crop rotation (more planting land), and mechanical sources of energy.
This increased deforestation, over-fishing, and human waste.

Question 36

List some examples of cultural borrowing in Europe.

Answer 36

1. The horse collar from China/Central Asia allowed for heavy plowing.
2. The stirrup from India/Afghanistan allowed for enhanced cavalry forces.
3. Gunpowder from China enhanced warfare.
4. Paper from China allowed for printing and literacy.
5. Mathematics from India/Islamic world allowed for the development of European algebra.

Question 37

What were some major effects of the Crusades?

Answer 37

The Crusades had very little impact in the Middle East as all footholds were reconquered by Muslim forces by 1300. However, Spain, Sicily, and the Baltic regions were permanently incorporated into Western Christendom. Attacks on Byzantium increased barriers between Roman Catholics and the Orthodox Church.
Culturally, contact with the Islamic World increased demand for Asian goods and introduced the concept of slave labor. Ideas of anti-Semitism (Jews) were expressed in the reconquering to Jerusalem, and the notion of “god wills it” was born among Christians.

Question 38

How did the rediscovery of Greek philosophy and science affect European Christianity?

Answer 38

Theology, logic, and philosophy were to operate in service to christ. As the works of Aristotle were translated from Greek and Arabic into Latin, they were incorporated into Christian doctrine to give it a logical and systematic presentation.

Question 39

Describe the European Renaissance.

Answer 39

Beginning in Italy between approx. 1350 and 1500, the wealthy male elite began to turn to the past to seek inspiration in the art and literature of ancient Greece and Rome. Artists began to create more naturalistic human busts, draw portraits of contemporary figures as well as scenes from ancient mythology, and some looked to the Islamic world for standards of excellence. It’s purpose was to imitate the ideas of christianity before surpassing.

Question 40

Contrast the rise of civilizations in Afro-Eurasia and the Americas.

Answer 40

Civilizations in Afro-Eurasia developed from villages, chiefdoms, and city states.
Civilizations in the Americas formed remotely located people through military conquest (rags to riches).

Question 41

Describe four elements of the Maya civilization.

Answer 41

1. The writing system contained both pictographs and phonetic/syllabic elements.
2. The mathematics contained the idea of zero.
3. The political system contained no central authority, leading to frequent warfare between city-states, lords, and kingdoms.
4. Due to misuse of the environment, the civilization collapsed with finality around 900 C.E.

Question 42

Describe two elements of the Aztec Empire.

Answer 42

1. The Aztec Empire was the last and largest Mesoamerican state to emerge prior to the arrival of the Spanish.
2. It formed from a semi-nomadic group (Mexicas) from northern Mexico who formed an alliance with two city-states and conquered the region under a single political framework.

Question 43

How did the bureaucrats of the Inca Empire compare to those of China?

Answer 43

The emperor headed the state in both. In China, the Censorate oversaw six ministries, and in the Inca Empire the emperor oversaw eighty provinces. The Censorate checked on the competence and character of each government official. In the Inca Empire “inspectors” checked the provincial officials and reported to the imperial center.

Question 44

Contrast the Aztec and Inca Empires.

Answer 44

The Aztec Empire required tribute from the conquered people. A prominent part of its society was war, in which slaves were acquired for human sacrifice to supply the sun with energy.
The Inca Empire was more intrusive in that conquered people were resettled, and instead of tribute, labor service was periodically required.

Question 45

Describe mita.

Answer 45

Mita was the periodic labor required of each household in the Inca Empire. Those with special skills worked in that area, and chosen women (young girls) were trained in Inca ideology before ultimately becoming the wife of a man of distinction or a priestess (wife of the Sun). In exchange, the state arranged elaborate feasts. The work of men and women differed, but neither were viewed as superior.

Question 46

Describe the Inca economic system.

Answer 46

The state owned all the land and resources, though “lands of the sun” were owned by communities, temples, and elites. Resettlement programs dispersed the conquered and resentful and rewarded the loyal. The sons of the conquered would be sent to the capital, Cuzco, to be taught Quechua (language) and Inca culture. However, conquered people were permitted to continue religious traditions if they acknowledged Inca deities.

Question 47

What is problematic with using the term “civilization” when describing city-states and early empires?

Answer 47

The term “civilized” refers to a higher, positive form of society. While civilizations have provided art, philosophy, and technology, they have also provided inequality, oppression, slavery, warfare, patriarchy, and rebellion. “Civilization” also implicates a widely shared identity and definitive borders. A common person within a large state likely did not feel part of an inclusive civilization.