UX Design Glossary Flashcards
A/B testing
A/B testing (also known as split testing), is the comparison of two designs against each other to determine which performs better.
Above The Fold
The Content on a web page that doesn’t require scrolling the experience
Accessibility
The design of products, devices, services, or environments for people with disabilities
The practice of designing experiences for people who experience disabilities. This means considering and designing for people who are color blind, blind, deaf, and people with cognitive disabilities, etc.
Accessibility
The practice of designing experiences for people who experience disabilities. This means considering and designing for people who are color blind, blind, deaf, and people with cognitive disabilities, etc.
Active Listening
Active listening is a communication technique that requires the listener to demonstrate the act of alert, intentional hearing in order to extract the meaning from what the speaker is saying.
Advertising Agencies
Teams of creatives hired by clients to build marketing campaigns
Affinity
A feeling of like-mindedness or compatibility toward something or someone
Affinity Diagram
A Method of synthesizing that organizes data into groups with common themes or relationships
Affinity Diagramming
An exercise used to organise a large number of data and ideas, sorting them into groups based on their natural relationships and into more meaningful categories. Affinity Diagramming is frequently used following brainstorming sessions.
Affordance
In usability terms, Affordance refers to an objects characteristics in relation to its function. Affordances are clues that tell us how an element should behave.
For example, a door handle is an affordance designed to tell us it can be pulled or pushed.
Agile
Agile is an incremental approach to software development. The methodology incorporates iteration, continuous delivery, and feedback cycles called “Sprints”.
Instead of building the entire product at once, Agile breaks it down into smaller bits of user functionality.
Aggregated Empathy Maps
Represent a visualization of everything designers know about an entire segment or group of similar users
Alternative Text (Alt Text)
Text that helps translate something visual, such as an image or graph, into a description that can be read by screen readers
Analytics
A broad term that encompasses a variety of tools, techniques, and processes used to better understand and interpret patterns of behaviour on the products we use. Analytics in UX often measures user behaviour.
Anticipatory Design
Anticipatory Design is an approach to design where decisions are anticipated and made on behalf of customers, thus removing the need for choice and reducing cognitive load.
API
Application Programming Interfaces, or APIs, are pieces of software that help different applications communicate with each other. Products develop APIs to let you access and read information on their server easily.
Apprenticeships
Long-term positions providing paid, on-the-job training to help you develop real skills
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Artificial Intelligence is the theory and development of computer systems able to perform tasks normally requiring human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition, and decision-making.
Assests
everything from the text and images to the design specifications, like font style, color, size, and spacing
Assistive Technology
Any products, equipment, or systems that enhance learning, working and daily living for people with disabilities
Asymmetrical Layout
Having Purposeful imbalance between different sides of a page
Augmented Reality (AR)
A technology that adds a computer-generated, visual layer on top of the real world. For example, generating graphics, sound, or video into a live view of the user’s physical environment in real-time.
Avatar
Avatar is an object that represents the user’s identity on screen. Avatars are one of the most common UI elements usually within a circle or square. We have avatars in business apps, social networks, games.
Back-end Developer
Someone who writes code for the websites’s architecture and data storage or retrieval, based on the sitemap and functionality
Back-end Development refers to the server-side of development where you are primarily focused on how the app or website works. Think about back-end as the portion that the user doesn’t see, acting as the backbone logic and code that gives an application functionality.
Backlog
The backlog is a list of tasks to be completed. The list is prioritized and ideally, the tasks will be completed in the order listed.
Basic Grid
Intersecting lines that divide pages into small squares, which allows you to easily lay out elements in a design
Beacon
Beacons are small Bluetooth radio transmitters. They communicate with the user’s smartphone and are used to share information.
Benchmarking
Evaluate something, such as a user interface, against a standard or external comparator such as when comparing a website with a competitor.
Beta
A version of the product that is not final. A beta launch has limited functionality and is used to find bugs to improve the final product.
Bias
Favoring or having prejudice against something based on limited information
Big Picture Storyboard
A series of visually rendered panels that focus on the user’s experience
Blind Voting
Blind voting is where the votes from each person included in the poll remain hidden or secret until all votes are cast. This prevents bias and vote influencing.
Borders
A method of containment that uses continuous lines that often form shapes, like squares or rectangles, to break up sections of a page
Box Layout
A web page layout that consists of boxes or squares of various sizes and proportions
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is the process of generating ideas and solutions in a short amount of time.
This main technique is divided into two sub-techniques: Brainwriting and Brainwalking.
Brand Identity
The visual appearance and voice of a company
Branding
The process of creating and marketing a consistent idea or image of a product, so that it is recognisable by the public.
Breadcrumb
Breadcrumb is a type of navigation to help users understand their location in a website or app. They’ll show a sequence of steps users have to take to get where they are.
Budget Estimate
Details the expenses and profit margins that add up to an appropriate cost for services
Call-to-Action (cat)
A visual prompt that tells the user to take action such as download, buy, read.
Bug
Bugs are mistakes in software that can cause a product to glitch, behave in unintended ways, or even crash.
Business Analyst (BA)
In software development, business analysts often act as the bridge between product development and business stakeholders to craft and document product requirements and help ensure that product decisions make business sense.
Card Sorting
Card Sorting is a user-centered research method used to inform the design of the information architecture.
Card sorting involves users ‘sorting’ cards into groups that make the most sense to them. The goal is to understand how users view a given set of items and identify potential categories. The patterns that arise may help inform the menu items in a website’s navigation, or what information should be combined or separated.
There are two different types: an open or close card sort.
Cards
Rectangle parts of a design that contain content and actions about a single subject, which are often used in mobile app design
Carousels
Scrolling feeds of images or cards on a UI that can be sifted through with a click or that automatically loop while you’re on a the page
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)
A language that describes how HTML should be displayed. HTML is the barebones of the content, whereas CSS is applied to HTML to give elements styling options like layout, color, typography, and more.
Case Studies
Summarized presentation of a design project that typically includes
- Project Goals and Objectives
- Your role on the project
- Process your team followed
- Outcome of the project
Case Study
Leads the user through your design process from the beginning to the end
Case Study
A UX case study (usually making up a UX portfolio) showcases the process of solving design problems. An emphasis is placed on how design thinking, methods, and deliverables were used to solve user experience problems.
Chatbot
Chatbots let you ask the system questions via a chat interface. They are a popular customer service tool and resemble the experience of texting a friend.
A chatbot (short for chat robot), is a computer program that mimics conversation with people using artificial intelligence technology.
Close -up Storyboard
A series of visually rendered panels that focus on the product
Closed Questions
Closed questions are those that require only a yes or no response when answered.
Co-creation
Co-creation is the method by which products, services, and processes are created with the involvement of the organisation plus customers or users and other third parties, such as agencies.
The process can often be led by a design agency on behalf of a client. Often referred to as Collaborative Design.
Cognitive Biases
Cognitive biases are errors in reasoning, memory, or other cognitive processes that result from holding onto existing beliefs regardless of contrary information.
There are more than 100 documented cognitive biases, commonly categorized into four categories: biases that arise from too much information, not enough meaning, the need to act quickly, and the limits of memory.
Cognitive biases are particularly important to be aware of while conducting research, as a way of arriving at truer findings instead of relying on personal preferences.
Cognitive Load
Cognitive load refers to the amount of effort that is exerted or required while reasoning and thinking. Any mental process, from memory to perception to language, creates a cognitive load because it requires energy and effort.
When cognitive load is high, thought processes are potentially interfered with. To the UX designer, a common goal when designing interfaces would be to keep users’ cognitive load to a minimum.
Cognitive Walkthrough
Cognitive walkthrough is a usability method carried out by a trained professional who attempts to identify usability issues by mimicking the actions of a user.
Color Modification
Features that increase the contrast of colors on a screen, like high contrast mode or dark mode
Common Region
The Gestalt Principle that describes how elements located within the same area are perceived to be grouped together
Competitive Audit
An overview of your competitors’ strengths and weaknesses
Competitor Analysis
Competitor analysis in strategic terms is a technique used to evaluate and identify the marketing and business strategy of competitive brands, businesses, and products. In user experience terms it is applied to identifying and analysing competitor’s web, mobile or digital strategies.
Complementary
Taking into account how the product design on each device can make the overall user experience better
Confirmation Bias
Occurs when you start looking for evidence to prove a hypothesis you have
Consistency
Having a uniform design, so users can expect the design to feel familiar across devices and products
Containment
The use of visual barriers to keep elements of a design neat and organized; the four methods of containment are dividers, borders, fill, and shadow
Content Management System (CMS)
Software that allows publishing, editing, and maintaining content from a central interface.
Content Strategist
Content strategists help maximize the usability and profitability of content, throughout the full content lifecycle: analyzing, planning, writing, editing, distributing, managing, and monitoring content. Due to the wide breadth of this field, the work that content strategists do often affect and involve information architecture and the user experience.
Content Strategy
The strategy, organization, and management of content that aligns between the user and business goals.
Context
Designing for the needs of a specific device and the way in which the user will use that device in any given situation
Contextual Inquiry
Contextual inquiry is a type of ethnographic field study that involves in-depth observation and interviews to gain an understanding of work practices and behaviors.
The research takes place in the users’ natural environment as they conduct their activities the way they normally would. The context could be in their home, office, or somewhere else entirely.
The researcher watches the user as she performs her task and asks for information to understand how and why users do what they do.
Continuity
Providing users with a smooth and uninterrupted experience as they move between devices
Conversational Interface
A Conversational Interface (or Conversation User Interface) emulates a conversation with a real human. It uses voice recognition and natural language processing to mimic human conversation.
For example, Amazon’s Alexa, Apple’s Siri, Microsoft’s Cortana. and the Google assistant.
Conversion rate
Measures the percentage of users who complete a desired action
Conversion Rate
The Conversion Rate of a product or site is the percentage of users who complete a desired action. For example, an e-commerce website’s desired action is a successful purchase. The Conversion Rate would tell us how many users bought an item.
Corporation
A company with thousands of employees working on lots of different projects
Curb cut
The slope of the sidewalk that creates a ramp with adjoining street
Curb cut effect
A phenomenon that describes how products and policies designed for people with disabilities often end up helping everyone
Customer Experience (CX)
Customer Experience or CX refers to all the different interactions a user has with a brand through its different channels and products, and how a user feels about them.
Customer Journey Map
A holistic, visual representation of your users’ interactions with your organisation, products, or services. It helps you tell the story of your customers’ experiences with your brand across all touchpoints. Also called the Buyer Journey or User Journey).
Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
Customer Relationship Management software systems help manage business processes, like sales, data, and customer interactions.
Customer-Centric
Customer centricity refers to companies that select a strategy focussed or built upon a specific orientation toward its customers and prospective customers.
For example, Amazon’s #1 Leadership Principle is Customer Obsession. Their leaders start with the customer and work backwards. Although leaders pay attention to competitors, they obsess over customers.
Customizable text
A feature that allows users to change how text is displayed in order to read the text more easily
Dark Patterns
Tricks used in websites and apps that cause unintended user action, like buying or signing up for things that you didn’t mean to.
For example, a checkbox beneath a password field when signing up in, but instead of “Keep me logged in”, it says, “I agree to subscribe to this newsletter.” That’s a dark pattern – when a product tricks you into buying or signing up for things that you actually don’t want.
Dashboard
A Dashboard is a simple visual representation of often complex data sets designed to make understanding and decision making easier.
Data Science
Data science is an interdisciplinary field that uses scientific methods, processes, algorithms, and systems to extract knowledge and insights from data.
The goal is to uncover valuable insights that help us make better product decisions.
Database model
A website structure that mixes a database, or an organized collection of information, with search functionality
Deceptive patterns
UX methods that trick users into doing or buying something they wouldn’t otherwise have done or bought
Dedicated mobile app
Built to live on the mobile device and is accessed through an icon on the phone’s home screen
Define
The phase of design thinking that involves leveraging the insights gained during the empathize phase to identify the problem you’ll solve with your design
Demographic
Demographics relates to how a population is structured and is used in user experience when defining participant profiles.
Design agency
Provides a one-stop shop for the look of brands, products, and services
Design critique session
A planned period of time where UX designers present their work to team members and listen to feedback
Design Debt
Design debt represents the full spectrum of design work that has been deprioritized in the backlog. It includes everything from lack of design thinking processes to specific UI bugs that need fixing.
For example, a newly launched web form is not consistent with the rest of the website, because a whole page template would need to be recoded.
Design Exercise
Often a take-home “quiz” of sorts to determine a design process. Sometimes a part of UX interviews.
Design Facilitation
The skill of facilitating design process and efforts, such as presenting to stakeholders or conducting design workshops.
Design Patterns
Repeatable design elements and components, often leveraging widespread user recognition to aid in the design process.
For example, a hamburger menu is now a design pattern that most users know how to interact with.
Design research
Answers the question: How should we build it?
Design Sprint
A time-bound process, with five phases typically spread over five full 8-hour days. The goal of design sprints is to answer critical business questions through designing, prototyping, and testing ideas with users
Design Sprint
The Design Sprint is a 5-day (sometimes shorter) process for answering critical business questions through design, prototyping, and testing ideas with customers.
Design system
A series of reusable visual elements and guidelines that allow teams to design and develop a product following predetermined standards
Design System
A design system is a collection of reusable components, guided by clear standards, that can be assembled together to build any number of applications.
Design thinking
A UX design framework that focuses on the user throughout all five phases: empathize, define, ideate, prototype, and test
Design thinking is a 5-stage method for creative problem-solving. The 5 stages are:
Empathize: Understand the challenge
Define: Define the problem
Ideate: Brainstorm potential solutions
Prototype: Build your solutions
Test: Test your solutions
Diary Study
A qualitative research method asking users to record their experiences and thoughts about a product or task in a journal over a set period of time.
Digital literacy
A user’s level of ability related to using digital information and technologies
Direct competitors
Companies that have offerings similar to your product and focus on the same audience
Dividers
A method of containment that uses single lines to separate sections of a page
Domain
The address of your website
Dopamine
A natural chemical in the brain that’s released when something pleasurable happens, which makes us feel good or intrigued
Edge case
What happens when things go wrong that are beyond the user’s control
Edge Case
An edge case is a rare occurrence in the product or service. Edge cases deal with the extreme maximums and minimums of parameters. Sometimes edge cases threaten to break a system and lead to poor user experience.
For example, if an application allows for “unlimited” photo uploads knowing that users rarely upload more than 1000, how does the system deal with the edge case of the user who uploads millions of photos? Are there boundaries at this maximum end? That is an edge case, an unlikely-yet-potentially disastrous situation.
Elements
Building blocks for creating a design
Elevator pitch
A short, memorable description that explains a concept in an easy-to-understand way
Empathize
The phase of design thinking that involves getting to know your user through research
Empathy
The ability to understand someone else’s feelings or thoughts in a situation
Empathy map
An easily understood chart that explains everything designers have learned about a type of user
Empathy maps are collaborative tools that help us visualize user behavior, attitudes, and feelings. This is split into 4 equal quadrants containing information about what the user is saying, thinking, doing, and feeling. At the center, is our user persona. Each quadrant is filled with information gathered from user research.
Emphasis
A way of attracting attention to text, a button, or another object in a design
End-User
The person we are designing the product for.
Engagement
A typical success metric defined by an organisation.
For example, time spent on a web page, number of interactions on a piece of content (likes, shares, comments), etc.
Entry-level job
Roles that do not require prior experience in the field
Equality
Providing the same amount of opportunity and support
Equity-focused design
Designing for groups that have been historically underrepresented or ignored when building products
Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the study or science of understanding the interactions between humans and systems, products, or equipment. The goal is to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance.
Ethnography
Ethnography is a qualitative research method used to capture information about behaviour in the context of people’s real-world environments. Through observations, It can be used to obtain unarticulated needs, motivations, and drivers to develop innovative designs.
Experience Design
Experience design is the approach for designing systems, products, processes, services, interfaces, and more with emphasis on the experience the user will have at the forefront of the design process.
Eye-Tracking
Eye-tracking measures the users eye activity whilst they are engaged in a particular task. Where a person looks, what they ignore, and when they blink.
Eye-tracking provides quantitative measures of attention. These can be correlated with task completion time, error rate, success rate, backtracking rate, and other indicators of an interface’s efficiency and used together as results from usability testing or as a standalone tool to tackle specific issues.
F-shape layout
A website layout that assumes that users will likely browse content on the page following an F-shaped pattern
Facilitator
Runs the critique session and guide the process
Facilitator
A facilitator, in the context of UX, is a practitioner who leads workshops, meetings, focus groups, or one-to-one sessions. The objective is to lead the group to achieve a common goal and/or be the main driver of the session.
False consensus bias
The assumption that others will think the same way as you do
Featured image layout
A website layout that places the user’s focus on a single image or video that often takes up the entire page above-the-fold
Feedback
Asking for or receiving ideas about what is or isn’t working
Feedback loops
The outcome a user gets at the end of a process
Fidelity
How closely a design matches the look and feel of the final product
Fill
A method of containment that assigns colors to borders and shapes
First interview
Introductory call with a recruiter or hiring manager to determine whether a candidate meets the minimum set of requirements for the role
Fitt’s Law
Fitt’s Law is a model that helps designers place and position the size and location of user interface elements for their optimal utility.
Fitt’s Law states “the time to acquire a target is a function of the distance to and size of the target”.
Flat Design
Flat design is a style of interface design emphasising minimum use of stylistic elements that give the illusion of three dimensions and is focused on a minimalist use of simple elements, typography, and colours.
Flowchart
A flow chart or flow diagram is a visual representation of a series of steps in a process that explains how the process works. Often used to illustrate the steps a user can take to complete a task on a product.
Focal point
A specific and distinct area that sticks out on a web page or mobile screen design, to guide the users’ attention
Focus groups
A Focus group is a session held with a group of representative users or consumers facilitated by a researcher who guides the discussion about a specific product, service, system, brand, or interface.
Font
The size, thickness, and emphasis of characters of text
Foundational research
Helps designers understand why or if they should build the product and to better understand the user problem they are trying to solve
Framework
Creates the basic structure that focuses and supports the problem you’re trying to solve
Freelancers
UX designers who work for themselves and market their services to businesses to find customers
Friendliness bias
The tendency of people to agree with those they like in order to maintain a non-confrontational conversation
Front-end developer
Someone who writes code for all the user-facing interface, based on the UX designer’s specifications
Front-End Development
Front-end development is the practice of implementing designs in code to be displayed on the web. Front-end developers primarily use HTML, CSS, and JavaScript to code designs. “Front-end” refers to the “client-side” - for example, a user’s browser window.
Gamification
Gamification is the process of integrating game-design mechanics and principles in non-game contexts such as websites and mobile applications in an effort to drive increase user adoption, engagement, and retention.
Generalist
A UX designer with a broad number of responsibilities
Gestalt Principles
Describe how humans group similar elements, recognize patterns, and simplify complex images when we perceive objects
Gestalt principle is also known as the law of simplicity and concerns the principle that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts and that people tend to perceive things in their simplest form.
Gesture
Any method of interaction a user has with information on their device using touch
GitHub
GitHub is a collaborative development platform used by developers.
Goal statement
One or two sentences that describe a product and its benefits for the user
Graceful degradation (top-down designing)
A method of designing from the largest screen, with a lot of features and interactions, to smaller screens, where features and interactions are scaled back
Graphic Design
Graphic design is one of the best-known practices within the world of design and technology. It includes fundamentals of design like typography, colour theory, illustration, and even photography.
Sometimes also referred to as communication design, the practice of developing and communicating media to target audiences.
Graphic designers
Create visuals that tell a story or message
Grid of cards layout
A website layout that features a series of cards, which are often square or rectangles, that provide previews of more detailed content
Grid System
A grid system works as a framework that helps product teams to arrange UI elements in a way that allows maintaining good visual balance from page to page.
Text, images, and functions are aligned on the column-based structure. It allows designers and developers to create more consistent and appealing UI.
Guerrilla Usability Testing
Guerrilla usability testing is a quick and inexpensive way of testing a prototype or website with real users.
Instead of recruiting a specific targeted audience to take part in sessions, participants are approached in public places and asked to take part in the research. These sessions normally last for only 10-15 minutes with little or no incentive.
Hamburger menus
A nickname for the type of navigation menu that is represented by an icon with three lines. When you click on the icon, it unfolds by sliding in from the side or taking over the whole page, revealing a menu of options to navigate through pages
Happy path
A user story with a pleasant ending
Heading
Titles or subtitles that stand out at the beginning of a paragraph, article, section, or another area of a website
Heat Map
A heat map is a graphical representation of the areas on your product that receive the most user attention. It uses a warm-to-cool colour spectrum to show you where exactly your users are going. Red indicates a high frequency of attention with degrees to white representing lower levels of attention.
Heuristic Evaluation
Heuristic evaluation is the documentation of a website or app’s usability flaws and other areas for improvement against the 10 best practice guidelines published by Jakob Nielsen to help guide usability assessments.
Hick’s Law
Hick’s law, sometimes referred to as Hick-Hyman law, is a model for measuring human reaction time based on the number of choices presented to them.
Hick’s Law states “the time it takes to make a decision increases with the number and complexity of choices”.
Hierarchical model
A top-down approach to structure that starts with broader categories of information (parent) and narrows into more detailed information (child)
Hierarchy
A visual design principle that orders elements on a page and highlights them by their importance
High Fidelity Prototype
A prototype that is polished and similar to a final design, with lots of detail and a good indication of the final proposed aesthetics and functionality. It is sufficiently well formed to allow for rigorous testing with users.
High-fidelity (hi-fi)
A design that closely matches the look and feel of the final product and is more refined or polished; called “hi-fi” for short
High-fidelity prototypes
Polished designs that exhibit functionality and closely match the look and feel of the final product
HTML
Hypertext Markup Language, or HTML, is the standard programming language used to create websites and web applications. Unlike CSS, it is concerned with the structure of a website, similar to a blueprint of a building.
Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)
Human-computer interaction (HCI) is a multidisciplinary field of study focusing on the design of computer technology and, in particular, the interaction between humans (the users) and computers. While initially concerned with computers, HCI has since expanded to cover almost all forms of information technology design.
Hypothesis statement
Our best educated guess on what we think the solution to a design problem might be
Iconography
A system of graphic images or symbols associated with a subject or an idea
Ideate
The phase of design thinking that involves brainstorming all potential solutions to the user’s problem
Ideation
The process of generating a broad set of ideas on a given topic, with no attempt to judge or evaluate them
Ideation
Ideation refers to a process or method for forming ideas or concepts.
Implicit bias
The collection of attitudes and stereotypes associated with people, without one’s conscious knowledge
Impostor syndrome
The belief that you’re unskilled, inferior to others, or bad at your job, despite your successes
Inclusive design
Making design choices that take into account personal identifiers like ability, race, economic status, language, age, and gender
Inclusive Design
Inclusive Design is a methodology, born out of digital environments, that enables and draws on the full range of human diversity. Most importantly, this means including and learning from people with a range of perspectives.
Indirect competitors
Have a similar set of offerings but focus on a different audience, or have a different set of offerings and focus on the same audience
Industrial Design
Industrial design uses both applied art and science to improve the aesthetics, functionality, ergonomics, and or usability of a physical product.
Infographic
Infographics or information graphics are visual representations of information or data designed to communicate complex or detailed information simply and contextually.
Information Architecture
Information architecture (IA) is the practice organizing and arranging information to make it understandable. This includes defining hierarchies, parent-child relationships and in general making sense out of an (informational) mess.
Information architecture (IA)
Organizes content to help users understand where they are in a product and where the information they want is
Initial focus
How you attract a user’s attention to help them accomplish a task
Innovation
Innovation is the process of developing or introducing something new.
Insight
An observation about people that helps you understand the user or their needs from a new perspective
Interaction Design (IxD)
Interaction Design, or IxD, is the practice of designing interactive digital products and considering the way in which users will interact with them.
A discipline that focuses specifically on how users interact with products (both digital and analog). This could be buttons on a page, swipes on an app, or how to use a can opener that only has one handle.
Interaction designers
Focus on designing the experience of a product and how it functions
Interactivity
Interactivity: Makes the prototype function
Interface
An interface is the point at which a person or user comes in to contact with an organisations systems, processes, products, or services.
Internship
A short-term role with limited responsibility
Interviews
A research method used to collect in-depth information on people’s opinions, thoughts, experiences, and feelings
Iterate
Revise the original design to create a new and improved version
Iteration
Doing something again, by building on previous versions and making tweaks
Iteration
Iterating is the act of repeating a process with the aim of approaching a desired goal, target, or result. Each repetition of the process is also called an iteration.
JavaScript
A call to action (CTA) is a message that invites a reader, user, or consumer to take an action such as download, buy, read.
Job Stories
Job stories (from jobs-to-be-done) help define user tasks in product design. Diffrent from user stories, it attempts to avoid leading a design with persona-first phrasing.
Format: When [name situation], I want to [list motivations and forces], so I can [expected outcome]. Example: When I go shopping for groceries, I want to find the cheapest available produce, so I can save money shopping.
Job-To-Be-Done
Jobs-to-be-done is a theory of consumer action. It describes the mechanisms that cause a consumer to adopt an innovation.
The theory states that markets grow, evolve, and renew whenever customers have a Job to be Done, and then buy a product to complete it (get the Job Done).
Kerning
Kerning is the spacing between individual letters or characters. Unlike tracking, which adjusts the amount of space between the letters of an entire word in equal increments, kerning is focused on how type looks — creating readable text that’s visually pleasing.
Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)
Critical measures of progress toward an end goal
KPIs, or Key Performance Indicators, are measurable values that help us understand and track how well a product is doing. As a UX designer, you’ll often work with KPIs like task success rate, user error rate, and time on task.
Key terms
Important words in a job posting that tell you the specifics about the role
Landing Page
Any page a user lands on is considered a landing page. However, landing pages are often tied to ads and search results and are designed to meet specific conversion goals. Not only are they the page a user lands on, but they are also a crucial part of marketing campaigns.
It’s common for landing pages that are part of a marketing campaign to be designed slightly differently than normal websites. Often, you’ll find that they do not feature a navigation and tend to push a single action, like a download, purchase, or registration.
Landmarks
Features — like navigation bars, search boxes, fixed sidebars, and footers — used to break up a lot of text on a web page and help improve the use of assistive technology
Law of Common Region
Law of Common Region states “Elements tend to be perceived into groups if they are sharing an area with a clearly defined boundary.”
Adding a border around an element or group of elements is an easy way to create common region.
Common region can be created by defining a background behind an element or group of elements.
Law of Prägnanz
Law of Prägnanz states “People will perceive and interpret ambiguous or complex images as the simplest form possible because it is the interpretation that requires the least cognitive effort of us.”
The human eye likes to find simplicity and order in complex shapes because it prevents us from becoming overwhelmed with information.
Research confirms that people are better able to visually process and remember simple figures than complex figures.
Law of Proximity
Law of Proximity states “Objects that are near, or proximate to each other, tend to be grouped together.”
Proximity helps to establish a relationship with nearby objects.
Proximity helps users understand and organize information faster and more efficiently.
Law of Similarity
Law of Similarity states “The human eye tends to perceive similar elements in a design as a complete picture, shape, or group, even if those elements are separated.”
Elements that are visually similar will be perceived as related.
Color, shape, and size, orientation and movement can signal that elements belong to the same group and likely share a common meaning or functionality.
Ensure that links and navigation systems are visually differentiated from normal text elements.
Law of Uniform Connectedness
Law of Uniform Connectedness states “Elements that are visually connected are perceived as more related than elements with no connection.
Group functions of a similar nature so they are visually connected via colors, lines, frames, or other shapes.
Alternately, you can use a tangible connecting reference (line, arrow, etc) from one element to the next to also create a visual connection.
Use uniform connectedness to show context or to emphasize the relationship between similar items.
Layout
The structure that supports how visual components on a page are arranged
Layout grid
A series of columns and alleys that allow you to organize elements in a design
Lean UX
Lean UX, based on Agile, is a collaborative user-centric approach that prioritizes “learning loops” (building, learning, and measuring through iterations) over design documentation.
Whereas traditional UX may include rounds of wireframes and design reviews, Lean UX would prioritize the development of an MVP to gather user feedback.
Learnability
Learnability is 1 of the 5 quality components of usability (the others being efficiency, memorability, errors, and satisfaction).
Learnability considers how easy it is for users to accomplish a task the first time they encounter the interface and how many repetitions it takes for them to become efficient at that task.
Testing learnability is especially valuable for complex applications and systems that users access frequently, though knowing how quickly users can acclimate to your interface is valuable for even objectively simple systems.
Likert Scale
A Likert scale is a scale commonly used in surveys and market research questionnaires. A typical Likert scale contains 5 possible answers to a question.
A Likert scale assumes that the strength/intensity of an attitude is linear, i.e. on a continuum from strongly agree to strongly disagree, and makes the assumption that attitudes can be measured.
For example, each of the 5 responses would have a numerical value which would be used to measure the attitude under investigation.
Load Time
The load time is the amount of time taken to download and display the entire content of a web page or application.
Localisation
Localisation, used in field of UX, means the degree to which design, language, terminology, features, and functionality are adapted for a specific market.
Long tail
A long tail is a statistical term that refers to a probability distribution where a larger share of the population rests within the tail than normally would.
A product strategy that allows companies to realize significant profits by selling low volumes of hard-to-find items to many customers, instead of only selling large volumes of a reduced number of popular items.
Look & Feel
Look and Feel is a term used in respect of a graphical user interface, including elements such as colours, shapes, layout, and typefaces (the “look”), as well as the behaviour of dynamic elements such as buttons, boxes, and menus (the “feel”).
Lorem ipsum
Meaningless placeholder text written in Latin that you can use to show where content will go and how a page will be laid out
Low fidelity (lo-fi)
A design that has a lower amount of complexity and is less refined or polished; called “lo-fi” for short
Low Fidelity Prototype
Low-fidelity prototypes are simple and low-tech concepts. All you need to get started is a pen and paper. The goal is to turn your ideas into testable artifacts that you can then use to collect and analyze feedback in the early stages.
Low-fidelity prototypes
Simple interactive structures that provide a basic idea of how products will look and behave
Machine Learning
Machine learning is an application of artificial intelligence (AI) that provides systems the ability to automatically learn and improve from experience without being explicitly programmed. Machine learning focuses on the development of computer programs that can access data and use it to learn for themselves.
The process of learning begins with observations or data.
Market research
Market research refers to the industry and profession that gathers and analyses information about how consumers use, interact with, perceive and consume goods and services.
Material Design
Material Design, often called just Material, is a design system developed by Google and native to Android devices.
Matrix model
A website structure that allows users to determine their own path, since content is linked in several ways
Memorability
The degree to which users can remember how to use an interface.
It poses the question, “when users return to the design after a period of not using it, how easily can they reestablish proficiency?”
Mental Model
A mental model represents what the user believes to be true about a product’s functionality. The more a user’s mental model aligns with a product’s functionality, the easier it will be for them to use it.
There is a hypothesis that this plays a major role in decision-making and how they approach a problem.
For example, to navigate further down a page, some users have the mental model of “swiping up” on a screen, whereas other users are accustomed to “scrolling down.”
Mental models
Internal maps that allow humans to predict how something will work
Methodology
The steps to take to conduct research, collect data, and analyze data
Microcopy
Microcopy is everywhere on interfaces. It’s the small bits of text you see on apps or websites that help you navigate it. Think labels on buttons, error messages, placeholder text in input fields, and text on tooltips. Small bits of text, big impact on your product’s UX.
Microinteractions
Micro-interactions are events which have one main task and they’re found all over your device and within apps.
Microinteractions happen pairs in which (1) the trigger can be a user action or an alteration in the system’s state; (2) the feedback is a narrowly targeted response to the trigger and is communicated through small, highly contextual (usually visual) changes in the user interface.
There are commonly used to encourage engagement, display system status, error prevention, communicate the brand, and delight users.
Miller’s Law
Miller’s Law “states “The average person can only keep 7 (plus or minus 2) items in their working memory.”
Organize content into smaller chunks to help users process, understand, and memorize easily.
Remember that short-term memory capacity will vary per individual, based on their prior knowledge and situational context.
Mind Map
A mind map is a visual representation through a spider diagram used to represent the thoughts, words, and ideas linked to or arranged around a keyword or theme.
Minimum Viable Product (MVP)
A Minimum Viable Product, or MVP, refers to a product with core features to launch.
The goal of the MVP is to save time & resources by incorporating early customer feedback before committing resources to build features users may not care about or even use. It also serves as a good tangible tool to test the value proposition.
Mobile Web
The mobile web refers to the use of the internet through handheld mobile devices.
Designers create solutions to meet mobile users’ unique requirements and restrictions. The focus is typically on accessibility, discoverability, and efficiency to optimize on-the-go interactive experiences.
Mobile-first philosophy
A method of design that starts by designing the mobile version of a product and later adapts it to fit larger screens
Mockup
A static, high-fidelity design that’s used as a representation of a final product
Mockups are representations of the final design. product. Unlike a prototype, a mockup is static and doesn’t include any interactions.
This is usually shared with clients and stakeholders between the phases of wireframes and prototypes.
Modal
A modal window is a pop-up window within an application. It creates a mode that disables the main application but keeps it visible. Users must interact with the modal before they can proceed or return to the application.
Modals are commonly used during onboarding, confirmations, etc.
Mood Board
A mood board is a collage of images, fonts, interactions, features, icons, and UI elements to communicate the artistic direction of a project.
Motion
A way to animate static design elements to focus the user’s attention and tell stories
Motion designers
Think about what it feels like for a user to move through a product
Multi-column layout
A web page layout that uses two or more columns for content
Multivariate testing (MVT)
If A/B testing concerns two “variables,” then multivariate testing concerns 3 or more options.
The goal of multivariate testing is to determine which combination of variations performs the best out of all possible combinations.
Natural Language Processing (NLP)
Natural language processing (NLP) is the ability of a computer program to understand human speech as it is spoken. They do this by processing and analysing large amounts of language data.
NLP is a subfield of linguistics, computer science, and artificial intelligence.
Navigation
The way users get from page to page on a website
Needfinding
Needfinding is the research process of identifying a user’s need for a solution. The process of needfinding is based on the observation and study of people. This involves a blend of techniques including interviews carried out by researchers as well as close observations in real-world scenarios.
Negative (white) space
The gaps between elements in a design
Net Promoter Score
A Net Promoter Score is used to measure brand loyalty. It is an index ranging from -100 to 100 that measures the willingness of customers to recommend a company’s products or services to others.
Networking
Interacting with other people to develop professional contacts and learn more about a job industry
Next Billion Users (NBU)
The billion people around the world who are accessing the web for the first time
Non-Disclosure Agreement (NDA)
A contract that gives one party legal protection against another party stealing their ideas or revealing proprietary information before a product is launched
Norman Door
A Norman door is a poorly designed door that confuses or fails to give you an idea whether to push or pull. It was named after Don Norman, the author of The Design of Everyday Things which explored the phenomenon.
Notetaker
The person who captures all of the ideas and feedback from the reviewers during a design critique
Occam’s Razor
Occam’s Razor states “Among competing hypotheses that predict equally well, the one with the fewest assumptions should be selected.”
The best method for reducing complexity is to avoid it in the first place. Analyze each element and remove as many as possible, without compromising the overall function.
Consider completion only when no additional items can be removed.
Omnichannel
Omnichannel is a cross-channel content strategy for retailers. A fully-integrated approach to commerce, providing consumers a unified experience across all channels or touchpoints.
Omnichannel merges the worlds of websites, emails, retargeted ads, social media marketing, and physical locations to show personalized offers, products, and messages.
Open Card Sort
In open card sorts, there are no pre-determined categories (hence “open”). Participants sort cards into categories that make the most sense to them, then create their own labels for these groups.
Open Questions
Open questions are those that typically include a what, how, why, when and where component and cannot be answered with a yes or no response.
Open Source
Anything you stumble upon that is open source is available for public use and free. You can use it, modify it, and build with it without running into trouble.
For example, Android is an open source operating system.
Operating System (OS)
An Operating System (OS) is a software that acts as an interface between computer hardware components and the user.
Pain points
UX issues that frustrate the user and block the user from getting what they need
Pairing Designing
The practice of putting two designers together to solve design problems.
The benefits of pair design include: separating of strategic and tactical thinking, producing higher-quality designs faster by providing continuous testing of ideas before they reach stakeholders, and develop a deeper design practice and stronger design culture.
Panel interview
A group of people meet a job candidate at the same time to assess the candidate’s skills
Paper prototype
A rough, often hand-sketched, drawing of a user interface, used in a usability test to gather feedback.
Participants point to locations on the page that they would click, and screens are manually presented to the user based on the interactions they indicate.
Paradox of Choice
The paradox of choice describes paralysis and dissatisfaction one feels when presented with too many choices.
Pareto Principle
The Pareto principle states that “for many events, roughly 80% of the effects come from 20% of the causes.”
Focus the majority of effort on the areas that will bring the largest benefits to the most users.
Parkinson’s Law
Parkinson’s Law states “Any task will inflate until all of the available time is spent.”
Payment schedule
A list of expected payment dates, including upfront costs and contingencies
Peak-End Rule
Peak-end rule states “People judge an experience largely based on how they felt at its peak and at its end, rather than the total sum or average of every moment of the experience.”
Identify the moments when your product is most helpful, valuable, or entertaining and design to delight the end user. Pay close attention to the most intense points and the final moments (the “end”) of the user journey.
Remember that people recall negative experiences more vividly than positive ones.
Peer reviews
Assignments that enable learners to provide feedback on each other’s assignment submissions
Persona
A fictional user whose goals and characteristics represent the needs of a larger group of users
Persona
A persona is a representation of the target user you’re designing for. They aren’t necessarily a real individual but are constructed using real information and data based on real users.
Personas are often is created early in the design process so you know who you’re designing for.
Personal brand
The way in which your personality, unique skills, and values as a designer intersect with your public persona
Personal statement
A one- or two-sentence phrase that describes what you do and what you stand for
Personally Identifiable information (PII)
Specific details that could be used to identify a user
Pixel
Pixels are tiny squares used to construct the images we see on our device displays.
Platform
The medium that users experience your product on
Pluralistic walkthrough
Pluralistic walkthrough is a usability method that revolves around a group of users, designers or developers together with usability practitioners stepping through tasks and scenarios in an attempt to identify usability issues and establish solutions.
Portfolio
A collection of work you’ve created that shows your skills in a certain area
Post-launch research
Helps designers understand if the product worked as expected
Presentation
A group of slides, where each slide has new information to share and promote insights
Presenter
The designer who is sharing their work with others in the session
Primacy bias
Remembering the first user more than others
Primary research
Research you conduct yourself
Problem statement
A clear description of the user’s need that should be addressed
Product
A good, service, or feature
Product Design
The entire process of creating usable products and experiences, starting by defining real-world problems and thinking about possible solutions.
Highly synonymous with the broad nature of user experience design.
Product Designer
A product designer is responsible for the user experience of a product, usually helping to define the direction of the feature goals and objectives with product management.
Synonymous with user experience designer, often with the added expectation of implementing designs end-to-end.
Product designer
Someone who is responsible for figuring out how the whole product comes together
Product goal statement
One or two sentences that describe a product and its benefits for the user
Product Management
Product management is the practice of strategically driving the development, market launch, and continual support and improvement of a company’s products.
Product Managers
Professionals who navigate and manage the product cycle, from researching users and managing a roadmap to overseeing the development of the product. Depending on the business, a product manager may be responsible for one major feature, line of business or other project. Often considered “mini-CEOs” of a product because PMs have a direct impact on business revenue, cost, and growth.
Production designers
Make sure first and final designs match in the finished project materials and that the assets are ready to be handed off to engineering team
Production Environment
A production environment is where the latest versions of software, products, or updates are pushed live to the intended users.
Think of it as the final phase of launching a digital product. This is the environment where the end-user can see, experience, and interact with the new product.
Progressive Disclosure
An interactive design technique that helps maintain the focus of a user’s attention by reducing clutter, confusion, and cognitive workload. It improves usability by presenting only the minimum data required for the task at hand.
The principle is also used in journalism’s ‘inverted pyramid’ style, learning’s ‘spiral approach’, and the game ‘twenty questions’.
Progressive enhancement (bottom-up designing)
Designing from the smallest screen, with the basic capabilities of the product design, to the largest screen, where more advanced features and interactions are added
Progressive Web Application (PWA)
A progressive web application takes advantage of the latest technologies to combine the best of web and mobile apps. Think of it as a website built using web technologies but that acts and feels like an app.
PWAs take advantage of the much larger web ecosystem, plugins, and community and the relative ease of deploying and maintaining a website when compared to a native application in the respective app stores.
Project background
provides a description about the background of the study, including why the insights were needed and what impact they will have on decisions being made
Project Kickoff
A project kickoff is the start of any product and/or feature where UX designers needs to validate early assumptions, gather information from clients and/or team and set expectations of deliverables.
Project stakeholders
People who are involved in the project or who will be impacted by its results
Proportion
The balance or harmony between elements that are scaled
Proposal
Outline of an approach to successfully deliver work that is scoped with a client, including timeline and budget estimates
Proto-Persona
Proto-personas helps you represent different user types of your product or service through fictional characters.
Each of them represents the desires, motivations, and needs of a group of real users based on assumptions and the team’s current knowledge and experience.
Prototype
Prototypes are interactive mockups of websites and mobile applications designed to look and feel like the real thing. They’re much quicker to make, and although they aren’t full-featured, they allow us to spot mistakes before we build the real thing.
Prototype
An early model of a product that demonstrates functionality
Proximity
The Gestalt Principle describing how elements that are close together appear to be more related than those that are spaced apart
Qualitative
Qualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to understand concepts, thoughts or experiences. This type of research enables you to gather in-depth insights on topics that are not well understood.
Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended questions, observations described in words, and literature reviews that explore concepts and theories.
Qualitative research
Focuses on observations about why and how things happen
Quality Assurance (QA)
Quality assurance (QA) is a way of preventing mistakes in products and avoiding problems when delivering services to users. In the manufacturing world, the role of QA helps identify and reduce defects in products. In the software world, quality assurance and testers work hand-in-hand with product teams to test edge cases. In essence, their job is to intentionally find breaking points in products so that users don’t have to.
Quantitative
Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to test or confirm hypotheses and assumptions. This type of research can be used to establish generalizable facts about a topic.
Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as numbers, and surveys with closed-ended questions.
Quantitative research
Focuses on data that can be gathered by counting or measuring
Questionnaires
A research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.
Questionnaires provide a relatively cheap, quick, and efficient way of obtaining large amounts of information from a large sample of people.
Rapid Prototyping
Rapid prototyping is a design workflow that consists of ideation, creating a workable prototype, and testing to discover and validate their ideas quickly.
Readability
Readability measures the complexity of the words and sentence structure in a piece of content. The assumption behind this metric is that complex sentences are harder to parse and read than simpler ones.
Recency bias
Most easily remembering the last thing you heard
Refactoring
Refactoring is the process of cleaning up and tidying code without affecting functionality, essentially increasing its quality. It isn’t done all at once but rather in small, incremental steps.
Representative sample
A subset of the target population that seeks to accurately reflect the characteristics of the larger group
Requirements Gathering
Requirements gathering is the process by which the scope and detail of a requirement is elicited from customers, users and stakeholders.
Research report
A document with fewer visuals containing the same information as a presentation to share and promote insights
Research study
A step-by-step examination of a group of users and their needs, which adds realistic context to the design process
Responsive Design
A design approach that responds to the user’s behavior and environment based on screen size, platform, and orientation. The practice consists of a mix of flexible grids and layouts, images, and an intelligent use of CSS media queries.
Responsive web app
An actual website that adapts to the device the user is on and is accessed through a mobile phone’s web browser
Responsive web design
Allows a website to change automatically depending on the size of the device
Retention
Retention is a matter of keeping your existing users for X amount of time. That might be an indefinite amount of time for products with long-term utility.
Retrospective
A collaborative critique of the team’s design sprint
Return On Investment (ROI)
A measure for evaluating business performance. In traditional finance, ROI is the most common “profitability ratio” most often calculated by dividing net profit by total assets. The general idea of ROI helps product teams evaluate whether certain efforts are worth pursuing.
Reviewier
Gives feedback about the design and offers clear actions to take
SaaS
Software as a Service, or SaaS, is a software distribution model in which software is licensed on a subscription basis and hosted on external servers. Subscribing users are able to access it through the web.
For example, Netflix, Google Suite, Spotify, etc.
Scalable
Describes a system that’s able to maintain performance levels when workload increases
Scale
Concept that’s used to explain the size relationship between a given element and the other elements in the design
Scannability
The ease with which a body of text can be digested by the user.
Scope creep
This is when the details of a project you’re planning, or scoping, slowly increase until the project is much more complex than what was originally planned
Scope of work
A document that outlines the project that will be completed with a client
Screen reader
Software that reads aloud any on-screen text, interactive elements, or alternative text
Screener survey
A detailed list of questions that helps researchers determine if potential participants meet the requirements of the research study
Scrum
Scrum is an agile software development framework. The framework is used to manage product development and other knowledge work.
Scrum is empirical in that it provides a means for teams to establish a hypothesis of how they think something works, try it out, reflect on the experience, and make the appropriate adjustments.
SDK
A software development kit, or SDK, is a software package that contains the tools required to develop products for a specific platform or operating system.
They help expedite the development process by providing “parts” developers can use instead of having to write the code for them from scratch.
Second round of interviews
Interviewers explore a job candidate’s experience in more depth, often in person, so that the team can understand how the candidate’s background fits the role
Secondary research
Research that uses information someone else has put together
Sensitive Personally Identifiable Information
Data that if lost, compromised, or stolen, could cause your users financial harm, embarrassment, or discrimination
SEO
Search engine optimization (SEO) is the process of increasing a website’s visibility in free, or organic, search results. It often involves writing useful content on a website around words and phrases users use in searches related to the brand’s product or service.
Serial Position Effect
Serial Position Effect states “Users have a propensity to best remember the first and last items in a series.”
Placing the least important items in the middle of lists can be helpful because these items tend to be stored less frequently in long-term and working memory.
Positioning key actions on the far left and right within elements such as navigation can increase memorization.
Serial position effect
When given a list of items, people are more likely to remember the first few and the last few, while the items in the middle tend to blur
Service Design
Service design is the process by which services are designed and developed from a user-centered, both from the employee’s and user’s perspective.
A service design experience often involves multiple channels, contexts, and products. The goal is to optimize an organization’s operations to better support customer journeys.
Shadows
A method of containment that creates dimension in combination with borders or fill
Similarity
The Gestalt Principle describing how elements that look similar are perceived to have the same function
Single column layout
A web page layout that has only one column for content
Sitemap
A diagram of a website or application that shows how pages are prioritized, linked, and labeled
Sitemap
A sitemap provides the overall structure, hierarchy, and organisation of a website or application.
During the design process, sitemaps help define the informational structure of an experience, for example which categories fall under what page.
Sketching
Sketching is a distinctive form of drawing which UX designers use, typically, as a first wave of attack to tackle a design problem.
Sketches are a useful part of the UX design process to explore, propose, refine and communicate design decisions.
Social desirability bias
The tendency for people to answer questions in a way that will be viewed favorably by others
Specialist
A UX designer that dives deep into one particular UX design role, like interaction, visual, or motion design
Speech to text
Software that allows users to compose text by speaking into their device
Spreadsheet note-taking
A simple and easy method to keep your notes organized using a spreadsheet
Sprint Brief
A document that you share with all your attendees to help them prepare for the sprint
Sprints
In agile software development, we call defined periods of time assigned to complete certain tasks “sprints.” Their length can vary but is usually around 1-3 weeks.
This name inspired GV’s Design Sprints.
Stakeholder Interviews
Conversations with the key contacts (often internally within the organisation) regarding the project.
Stakeholder interviews help you gain context and knowledge about the product, service, clients, customers, and overall project.
Startup
A new business that wants to develop a unique product or service and disrupt the market
Statement of Work
A legally binding document that includes a list of detailed deliverables, their due dates, and a payment schedule
Storyboard
A series of panels or frames that visually describes and explores a user’s experience with a product
Storyboard
A tool inspired by the filmmaking industry, where a visual sequence of events is used to capture a user’s interactions with a product.
Storyboards look a lot like comic strips and include dialogue, instructions, and represent a user journey, scenario, or process.
Styleguide
A document containing the styling options that are repeated throughout a design, for the purpose of maintaining visual consistency throughout an experience. Styleguides are basically a set of rules of when to apply certain fonts, sizes, and more.
Sunk cost fallacy
The idea that the deeper we get into a project we’ve invested in, the harder it is to change course
Survey
An online form designed to solicit feedback from current or potential users.
A UX research survey is a set of questions, sent to a targeted group of users, that probes their attitudes and preferences. Surveys can be a quick, easy, and inexpensive way to obtain data questions you ask.
A survey is a research method for capturing answers to structured questions from users or consumers. These can be qualitative and quantiative.
Surveys
An activity where many people are asked the same questions in order to understand what most people think about a product
SVG
A popular image format, Scalable Vector Graphics, or SVGs, are scalable two-dimensional graphics that can be manipulated and animated with code.
Switch device
An assistive technology device that replaces the need to use a computer keyboard or a mouse
System Usability Scale (SUS)
A questionnaire to measure the usability of designs
T-shaped designer
A designer who specializes in one kind of user experience (e.g., interaction, visual, motion) and has a breadth of knowledge in other areas
T-Shaped Designer
T-shaped designers are strong generalists who know how to do all aspects of design sufficiently but excels especially in one discipline.
The horizontal part of the letter “T” refers to the breadth of design skills, while the vertical part of “T” refers to the depth in one design specialty. Some teams are built by selecting T-shaped designers whose strengths work well together.
Task Analysis
Task analysis is the process of listing tasks or the steps a user takes to complete any given goal from the user’s perspective. It is typically done during early stages of product development to help us identify and communicate problems in the user experience.
Taxonomy
The practice of classifying things and concepts.
For example, how a website is separated into categories and sub-categories so that they are simple, easy to use, and learnable.
Tesler’s Law
Tesler’s Law, also known as The Law of Conservation of Complexity, states that “for any system, there is a certain amount of complexity which cannot be reduced.”
All processes have a core of complexity that cannot be designed away and therefore must be assumed by either the system or the user.
Ensure as much as possible of the burden is lifted from users by dealing with inherent complexity during design and development.
Take care not to simplify interfaces to the point of abstraction.
Test
The phase of design thinking that involves facilitating and observing user tests with your design prototypes
The human factor
Describes the range of variables humans bring to their product interactions
Think-Aloud Protocol
Think-Aloud Protocol (TAP) is a method used to gather information in usability testing. The participant, test subject, or user is asked to verbalise their thoughts as they progress through the test.
Tiered layer cake layout
A web page layout where individual rows, or layers, are stacked on top of one another, and within each row, there can be different numbers of columns
Time on task
The amount of time it takes for a user to complete a task
Traversal order
The navigation flow for a user on an app or a website
Tree Testing
A UX research method designed to understand and evaluate the findability, labels, and structure of a website’s navigation menu.
A tree test evaluates a hierarchical category structure, or tree, by having users find the locations in the tree where specific tasks can be completed.
This is commonly used to test the findability, labeling, and structure of a navigation menu.
True Intent Study
A research method designed to collect data to understand user’s objectives as they visit a website.
Type classification
A general system to describe styles of type, like serif and sans serif
Typeface
The overall style of the characters
Typographic hierarchy
The ordering of typefaces and fonts in a layout to create divisions that show users where to focus and how to find information
Typography
The technique of arranging letters and text to make the language readable, clear, and visually appealing
UI Kit
UI kits, or user interface kits, help you improve your design workflow. They also encourage recycling components instead of creating new ones from scratch.
Commonly used for mobile design or prototyping, largely because two of the biggest operating systems—iOS and Android—both have robust, well-documented, and heavily supported design systems.
Unit Testing
The process of testing parts of an application to ensure they’re working properly. It can be done manually or can be an automated process.
Unity
Measures how well elements of your design work together to communicate an idea
Universal design
The process of creating one product for users with the widest range of abilities and in the widest range of situations
Usability
Usability is how easy and intuitive an experience is for users. How easy is a product to use? How intuitive is a feature? Does it get the job done, and if so, how much effort does a user have to exert before getting there?
Usability study
A research method that assesses how easy it is for participants to complete core tasks in a design
Usability Testing
Usability testing is the practice of testing how easy a design is to use with a group of representative users.
During usability tests, researchers observe participants who attempt to complete tasks. The goal is to identify usability problems, collect qualitative and quantitative data and determine participants’ reactions to an experience.
Use of navigation vs. search
The number of people who use a website or app’s navigation compared to the number of people who use the search functionality
User
Any person who uses a product
User error rates
Indicate the parts of a design that cause users to make errors
User experience
How a person, the user, feels about interacting with, or experiencing, a product
User Experience (UX)
The User Experience refers to a user’s emotions, attitude, and perceptions about a product, system, or service.
In other words, it is how you feel while interacting with an app or website. Good UX makes a product useful, usable, desirable, findable, accessible, and credible.
User Flow
A user flow, or UX flow, is the path created by a user on a website or app to complete the task at hand. User flows are similar to a traditional flow chart, but they include visual interfaces or gestures. The flow maps out the user’s entry point, exit point, and every step they take along the way.
User flows focus on a specific user task, and eventually include all possible alternative paths. Designing for the “happy path”—the best way to complete a task without errors or exceptions—allows the designer to focus on exactly what the user needs, and nothing else.
User flow
The path taken by a typical user on an app or a website, so they can complete a task from start to finish
User group
A set of people who have similar interests, goals, or concerns
User Groups
User Groups are similar to focus groups but tend to be used in usability research and involve a higher level of interaction between group participants and digital interfaces being evaluated or discussed.
User Interface (UI)
The medium through which users interact with an experience, product or device. Your mobile screen, the automated checkout kiosks at grocery stories, the keyboard on your laptop and the way Alexa responds to your voice are all examples of user interfaces.
User Interface (UI) Design
User interface design (UI design) refers to the visual elements of a product or digital experience.
In essence, it’s the translation of a brand’s vision into a product or piece of software. The look and feel of a product. The most common UIs are on the phone, computer, or tablet you’re using right now; at the ATM where you take out cash; and in your car.
User interface (UI) designer
Someone who is concerned with how a digital product’s interface looks and functions
User journey
The series of experiences a user has as they interact with a product
User Journey
The step-by-step journey that a user takes to reach their goal.
User Research
User Research focuses on understanding users’ behaviors, needs, worldviews, and motivations through a variety of analytical and observational techniques.
While market research looks at broader demographic factors and trends, user research focuses on individual goals and behaviors.
User Stories
A method of translating research into actionable user goals and tasks. User stories are built from the perspective of target personas.
Format: As a [persona], I want to [action], so that [expected outcome].
For example, as a busy designer, I want to learn a low barrier to entry to learning UX, so that I can get a promotion.
User story
Fictional one-sentence story told from a persona’s point of view to inspire and inform design decisions
User-centered design
Puts the user front-and-center
UX designers
Focus on how users interact with a product
UX engineers
Translate the design’s intent into a functioning experience
UX Portfolio
A showcase of a designer’s best work. UX portfolios usually include in-depth case studies focusing on the design process and problem-solving. Most commonly presented as a website or presentation.
UX program managers
Ensure clear and timely communication so that the process of building a useful product moves smoothly from start to finish
UX research
Understand users and learn about their backgrounds, demographics, motivations, pain points, emotions, and life goals
UX Researcher
A user research professional conducts research and helps translate those insights into actionable goals for product teams. User researchers apply both quantitative and qualitative focus to their work.
UX researchers
A type of researcher that conducts studies or interviews to learn about the users of a product and how people use a product
UX Writer
UX writers develop written copy for user interfaces, with the aim of helping customers interact and use a product.
The writing that’s produced - whether it’s the label on a button or help text under a form field, is often referred to as microcopy.
UX writers
Create the language that appears throughout a digital product, like websites or mobile apps
UX/UI Developer
Primarily a front-end developer with a knack for usability and a sensibility for coding products with the user in mind. Sometimes companies use this as a catchall unicorn role for someone who designs and codes.
Value proposition
The reason why a consumer should use a product or service
Variety
Differentiating the elements in your design to add visual interest
Virtual Reality (VR)
A simulation of 3d environments that users can interact with, often using special electronics like VR helmets, goggles, gloves, and sensors.
Just like AR, VR is a new platform that will demand more UX & UI expertise from designers.
Visual balance
The sense that a design is equally weighted on both sides of its emphasized center
Visual design
How a product or technology appears to users
Visual Design
Also called communication design. A discipline that combines design and information development in order to develop and communicate a media message to a target audience.
Visual designer
Someone who focuses on how the product or technology looks
Visual Hierarchy
Commonly referred to as hierarchy in the Principles of Design, visual hierarchy is a way to visually rank your design elements. It’s based on the order of visual importance, rather than aesthetics or design styles.
A good design leads the eye through each area in a specific order that influences how objects are perceived by using contrast, balance, emphasis, and/or scale within the objects in a design. A good rule of thumb is that your most important elements should be the most prominent.
Visual weight
A measure of the force that an element exerts to attract the eye
Voice control
Allows users to navigate and interact with the buttons and screens on their devices using only their voice
Voice User Interface (VUI)
Interfaces that enable users to use voice input to control computers and devices. Functional VUIs depend on speech recognition in order to translate voice iput into commands a machine can understand.
Von Restorff Effect
The Von Restorff effect, also known as The Isolation Effect, predicts “that when multiple similar objects are present, the one that differs from the rest is most likely to be remembered.”
Make important information or key actions visually distinctive.
Don’t exclude those with a colour vision deficiency or low vision by relying exclusively on colour to communicate contrast.
Vulnerable populations
Groups of people who have limited ability to provide their consent or have special privacy concerns
Waterfall
Compared to agile or lean, waterfall is a software development method with a relatively linear, sequential process. Originating from heavy manufacturing and automotive industries, waterfall is now seen as a less flexible and iterative way of design. For proven, repeatable projects, waterfall may still have a place.
Wayfinding
Wayfinding refers to information systems that guide people through a physical environment and enhance their understanding and experience of the space. Wayfinding is particularly important in complex built environments such as urban centers, healthcare, and educational campuses, and transportation facilities.
WCAG
Web Content Accessibility Guidelines
Wearables
Wearables are electronics that can be worn on the body, either as an accessory or as part of material used in clothing.
For example, Apple Watch, Fitbit Fitness Tracker, etc.
Web Apps
Web Apps or web applications, which is a computer program that users run in their web browser, also referred to as “client-side.”
A website can contain a mix of informational content (webpages) or functional applications (webapps).
Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG)
A set of rules that explain how to make web content more accessible to people with disabilities
WebAIM
Web Accessibility in Mind
Website
A website is a collection of web pages and related content that is identified by a common domain name and published on at least one web server.
White Space
White or negative space refers to the unoccupied or blank space on a page.
Whiteboard Exercise
Whiteboards are used for collaborative design and brainstorming, so whiteboard exercises are often used to test applicants on their design problem-solving abilities. Whiteboard exercises ask: are you able to visualize a process, show your work and arrive at a set of recommendations?
Here’s a common exercise: Design a [interface] for an [audience], e.g. “Design an ATM for children.”
Whiteboard interview
Includes a practical demonstration of a job candidate’s skills in real time for interviewers
Wireframe
An outline or a sketch of a product or a screen
Wireframe
A wireframe is a simple visual guide that represents the skeletal framework of a website or digital product. Think of it as the blueprint for your final design.
Wireframing is the process of designing a product or feature (desktop or mobile) at a structure level to gain design insight early and identify any major usability issues.
Z-shape layout
A website layout that assumes that users will skim information starting left to right, then move diagonally to the left, before scanning to the right again, in the shape of a Z
Zeigarnik Effect
People remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed tasks.
Invite content discovery by providing clear signifiers of additional content.
Providing artificial progress towards a goal will help to ensure users are more likely to have the motivation to complete that task.
Provide a clear indication of progress in order to motivate users to complete tasks.
Affordances
Affordances are clues that tell us what an element can do to us. Think of a door. The handle is an affordance designed to tell us it can be pulled or pushed.
On user interfaces, affordances help clearly communicate to users what can and cannot be done on a screen. Buttons on interfaces, for example, afford being pressed to trigger an action.
Adaptive
An adaptive interface is a collection of layouts designed specifically for different devices. it detects the device type being used and displays the layout designed for it. This does not mean it is a different website—it means you’ll see a specific version of the website which has been optimized for mobile, desktop or tablet.
Breadcrumb
Breadcrumb navigation systems help users understand their location in a website or app. They’ll show a sequence of steps users have take to get where they are.
Cache
A cache memory lets you store and save data temporarily for later use. You’ll often find usernames, recent searches and websites in your cache memory.
Clickstream
When you land on a site, you click your way through it to complete a task. This is what a clickstream represents: the path of clicks you took on it to accomplish a goal.
Commits
Throughout the development process, developers create commits whenever they have reached a good point in their work. Commits are similar to drafts.
Conversion Rate
The Conversion Rate of a product or site is the percentage of users who complete a desired action. Say we’re creating an e-comm site and the desired action is a successful purchase. The Conversion Rate would tell us how many users bought an item.
Heat Map
A heat map is a graphical representation of the areas on your product that receive the most user attention. They use a warm-to-cool color spectrum to show you where exactly your users are going. The red areas in the heat map below, for example, are the areas users interact with the most on the website.
Flowchart
Flowcharts illustrate the steps a user can take to complete a task on a product.
Hybrid App
Hybrid mobile apps combine both native and web technologies. They’ll often use a combination of technologies like HTML, CSS, and JavaScript and will live inside a native container that lets it access device capabilities
IP Address
An IP address, or Internet Protocol Address, is a unique number made up of numbers and periods used to identify each device utilizing the Internet Protocol to communicate.
Mental Model
A mental model represents what the user believes to be true about a product’s functionality. The more a user’s mental model aligns with a product’s functionality, the easier it will be for them to use it.
Microcopy
Here’s a popular one these days. Microcopy is everywhere on interfaces. It’s the small bits of text you see on apps or websites that help you navigate it. Think labels on buttons, error messages, placeholder text in input fields and text on tooltips. Small bits of text, big impact on your product’s UX.
Mobile Web
The mobile web isn’t a separate section of the web or a special place. The term mobile web refers to jumping online on a mobile device.
MVP
An MVP, or Minimum Viable Product, refers to the essential set of features we can launch a product with to get the ball rolling. This isn’t to say we won’t develop further elements or parts down the line. Products are often launched as MVPs to release fast and gather valuable user feedback.
A car’s MVP, for example, could be the tyres, steering wheel, engine, and a single seat. Without these, the car can’t move forward. Once we find that users are enjoying our car, we can begin to enhance the driving experience with a radio, gears, and more seats for friends.
Pairing Development/Pairing Programming
Pairing development or pairing programming is the practice of working on code in twos. Two developers take turns writing and revising code.
Pull Request
Pull requests let developers share changes they’ve made to code with others involved on Github.
Refactoring
Refactoring is the process of cleaning up and tidying code without affecting functionality, essentially increasing its quality. It isn’t done all at once but rather in small, incremental steps.
Scrum
Scrum is an agile software development framework. Scrum masters are experts in the framework who work in companies, running meetings and organizing sprints.
Sketching
We do it all the time as designers. Sketching is quick freehand drawing intended to help us brainstorm and jot down ideas. Sketches aren’t really polished or finished products—think of them as visual note-taking.
Slack
Slack is an internal messaging platform for teams. It is huge in product development. If you’re taking a course with us, you’re probably using it to connect with you peers and the CareerFoundry community.
Storyboard
Storyboards are a visual representation of a user’s experience with a product or problem space. They are a film technique we’ve adopted and look a lot like comic strips.
UI Element
User interface (UI) elements are all the different parts found on an interface we need to trigger specific actions or get around an app or website. Think the buttons, input fields, toggles, and radio buttons.
Technical Debt
Technical debt is similar to design debt but instead of taking a toll on the design system, it takes it on the code.
Products accrue technical debt whenever an easy but messy development solution is favored over a better yet more time consuming alternative. Eventually, the messy solution will need to be cleaned up, generating work. This is what we call technical debt.
UI Pattern
UI patterns are reusable solutions to common usability problems in products or on the web expressed as a collection of UI elements. Think about a login screen. A common login UI pattern is made up of two input fields, one for a username and one for a password, and a button to submit these. We call this collection of elements a login pattern.
Unit Testing
The process of testing parts of an application to ensure they’re working properly. It can be done manually or can be an automated process.
Usability testing
Usability testing is a research method that lets us evaluate how easy a product is to use by testing it on a group of representative users.
User-centered design
Like the term suggests, user-centered design, or UCD, is an iterative design framework in which users and their needs are always kept at the center of every decision. If you’d like to learn more about employing this framework, we’ve made a handy UCD how-to guide for beginners.
User Flow
A user flow describes the intended series of steps a user needs to take to complete a goal on a product. They often include a name, steps and a description of what happens during each step.
User Interface
User Journey Maps are narrative documents that help us visualize the process a user goes through in order to accomplish a goal. They document the stages the user goes through, the tasks executed during each stage, user emotions, and product opportunities.
User Scenario
Used in early stages of a product, user scenarios are mini stories that describe the needs and/or context that brings a user to your product. They tell us who the user is, why the user is interested in your product, and what his or her goals are.
White space
White or negative space refers to the unoccupied or blank space on a page. In the shot below, white or negative space is used cleverly to shape a cursor.
Anti-Affordance
something that prevents an interaction. Ex. Glass: affords transparency (affordance), but blocks passage (anti-affordance). In this case, the affordance may hide the anti-affordance. When an affordance or anti-affordance is imperceptible, there should be a signifier.
Signifier
component of an affordance that communicates it is function. “… any mark or sound, any perceivable indicator that communicates appropriate behavior to a person.”
Constraints
Limiting the range of interaction possibilities for the user to simplify the interface and guide the user to the appropriate next action
Mapping
relationship between the elements of two sets of things, e.g., mapping of switches to lights. Showing spatial correspondence, esp. through natural mapping, is most effective.
Feedback
communicating the results of an action. It is essential, and should be: Immediate Informative Planned Prioritized unobtrusive for less important info., attention-grabbing for emergencies Confirm all actions Poor feedback can be worse than no feedback. Too much feedback can be distracting & even dangerous.
Seven Stages of Action
Action bridges the gulfs of evaluation and execution, there are two parts to an action: executing the action and then evaluating the results. The specific bridges the gap between what we would like to have done (our goals) and all the possible physical action achieve these goals. The seven stages of action: There are three stages of execution Plan (the action), (3) Specify (an action sequence) and (4) Perform (the action sequence). we follow from the (1) Goal: (2) Evaluating what happened has three stages: (5) Perceive (the state of the world), (6) Interpret (the perception) and (7) Compare (the outcome with the goal). The action cycle can start from the goal in which we call it from the bottom, triggered by an event in the world in which case we call it ‘data-driven’ or ‘goal-driven’ behaviour. Or it can start ‘event-driven’ behaviour.
Physical Constraints
Physical limitations constrain possible actions. Physical constraints are made more effective and useful if they are easy to see and interpret
Conceptual Model
simple explanation of how something works. Guide to help us achieve goals and understand world. Doesn’t have to be complete or even accurate. Valuable only as long as supporting assumptions are true. Often inferred from experience with the device itself, can come from other people (instruction) or usage manuals (training). Major usage cues come from object’s perceived structure, esp. from signifiers, affordances, constraints, mappings. Conceptual models are valuable in: o Providing understanding o Predicting how things will behave o Figuring out what to do when things don’t go as planned Good models allow you to predict effects of actions. They’re key for understandable, enjoyable UX. Good communication is key to good conceptual models.
Mental model
conceptual model in people’s minds that represent their understanding of how things work. Different people may have different, conflicting models of the same thing.
4 Kind of constraints
Physical constraints
Cultural constraints
Semantic constraints
Logical constraints
Cultural Constaints
Each culture has a set of allowable actions for social situations thus, in our own culture we know how to behave. Cultural constraints are likely to change over time.
Semantic Constraints
Semantic are those that rely upon the meaning of the situation to the set of possible actions. Semantic constraints rely upon our knowledge of the situation and of the world. Such knowledge can be a powerful and imminent.
Logical Constraints
A logical relationship between the spatial or functional layout of components and the things that they affect or are affected by.
Slips
A slip occurs when a person intends to do one action and ends up doing something else. With a slip, the action performed is not the same major classes of slips: action-based and memory-lapse In action-based is performed. In lapses, memory fails, so the intended action is not done or it’s results are not slips, the wrong action as the action that was intended. There are two evaluated.
Capture Slips
Defined as the situation where instead of a desired activity a more frequent, or recently performed one is done instead. Designers need to avoid procedures that have identical opening steps but then diverge
Mistake
A mistake occurs when the Mistakes have three major classes: Rule-based, Knowledge-based wrong goal is established or the wrong plan is formed. and Memory-lapse. In a rule-based mistake, the person has appropriately diagnosed the situation but then decided upon
Description-similarity slips
The error is to act upon an item similar to the target this happens when the description of the target is sufficiently vague. Designers need to ensure that controls and displays for different purposes are significantly different from one another.
Memory Error Slip
A mode error occurs when a device has different states in which the same controls have different meanings: We call these states modes. Mode errors are inevitable in anything that has more possible reactions then it has controls or displays; that is, the controls mean different things in different modes. Mode error is really design error. Mode errors are especially likely ehre the equipment does not make the mode visible, so the user is expected to remember what mode has been established. Designers must try to avoid modes, but if they are necessary, the equipment must make it obvious which mode is invoked
Rule-based Mistakes
Occur in multiple ways. The situation is mistakenly interpreted, evoking the wrong plan or goal. The correct rule is invoked. But the rule itself is faulty The correct rule is invoked, but the outcome is incorrectly evaluated. Rule based mistakes are difficult to avoid and then difficult to detect, The designer should provide as much guidance as necessary to ensure a coherent and easily interpreted format - ideally graphical. that the current state of things is displayed in
Knowledge-based mistakes
Knowledge-based behaviour takes place when the situation is devised. The best novel enough that there are no skills or rules to cover solution to knowledge based mistake the situation, which in most cases also complex cases help is needed, and good translates into an it. IN this case, a new procedure must be is to be found in good understanding of appropriate conceptual model. In cooperative problem-solving skills and tools are
memory-lapse mistakes
Memory lapses can lead to mistaken if the memory failure leads to forgetting the goal or plan of action. The design cures for memory-lapse mistakes are the same as for memory-lapse slips: ensure that all relevant information is continuously available. The goals, plans and current evaluation of the system, are of particular importance and should all be continually available. Far too many designs eliminate all signs of these items once they have been made or acted upon.
Designing for error
Understand the causes of error and design to minimize those causes Do sensibility checks. Does the action pass the ‘common sense’ test Make it possible to reverse action to ‘undo’ - or make it harder to do what cannot be reversed Don’t treat the action as an error; rather, try to help the person complete the action properly. Think of the action as an approximation of what is desired.
human centered design process
The double-diamond describes the two phases of design: finding the right problem, and fulfilling human needs. But how are these actually done? This is where the human-centred design process comes into play: it takes place within the double-diamond diverge-converge process. There are four different activities in the human-centred design process: Observation, Idea generation, prototyping, testing.
Observation
The problem definition for the product design will come from this deep understanding of the goals the people are trying to accomplish and the impediments they exercise. One of the most critical techniques is to observe the would-be customers in their natural environment. Design research supports both diamonds of the design process. The first diamond: finding the right problem, requires a deep understanding of the true needs of people. Once the problem has been defined, finding an appropriate solution again requires deep understanding of the intended population, how those people perform their activities, their capabilities and prior experience, and what cultural issues might be impacted.
Idea Generation
Once the design requirements are determined, the next step for a design team is to generate potential solutions. THis process is called idea generation, or ideatino. This exercise might be done for both of the double diamonds: during the phase of finding the correct problem, then the problem ution phase. Two major rules are usually followed: Generate numerous ideas Be creative without regard for constraints Norman likes to add a third rule Question everything!
Norman Terms - Iteration
Getting the requirements right involves repeated study and testing iteration. Observe and study: decide what the problem might be, and use the results of tests to determine which parts of the design work, which don’t. Then iterate through all four processes once again, Collect more design research if necessary, create more ideas, develop the prototypes, and test them.
memory-lapse slips
Can lead to several kinds of error: failing to do all the steps of a procedure, repeating steps, forgetting the outcome or forgetting the goal on an action. There are several ways to combat memory-lapse errors. One is to minimize the number of steps ; another, to provide vivid reminders of steps that need to be completed.
visceral
About immediate perception, so appearances (sight, sound, touch, smell) matter. Aesthetics are important
three levels of processing
visceral, behavioral, reflective
Design must occur at all levels of processing – they all work together to determine a person’s cognitive and emotional state. Reflection is perhaps the most important for designers, because reflective memories are often more important than reality.
behavioral
Actions and analyses are mostly subconscious at this level. It is where we match patterns with past experiences.
reflective
Highest level where conscious cognition occurs, deep understanding develops, reasoning and decision-making take place. It is slow, occurs after events have happened, and is where causes are assigned and predictions can occur.
human-centered design
Observation
Idea Generation
Prototyping
Testing
Norman Terms - Discoverability
Is it possible to even figure out what actions are possible and how to perform them - affordances
Understanding
How is the product suppose to be used - signifier
Human-centered design
Human-centered design (HCD) design philosophy/process that posits design should first consider then accommodate human needs, capabilities, and behaviors. This understanding comes through observation. The process is iterative, based upon cumulative estimations of the problem.
fundamental principles of interaction
affordances
signifiers
constraints
mappings
feedback
conceptual model.
