T1: Changes to the Presidency, 1917-45 Flashcards
Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921): Domestic and Foreign Affairs
Domestic
* “New Freedom” agenda aimed to break up monopolies, he established Federal Reserve System (1913) for economic stability
* Allowed Cabinet secretaries to segregate their departments. This policy led to segregation in various government spaces, including workplaces, restrooms, and cafeterias.
* Highly progressive in women’s rights, overseeing the 19th Amendment granting suffrage for females
Foreign
* 1916: Re-elected with slogan “He kept us out of war,” but entered WWI shortly after re-election (Sinking of Lusitania, Zimmerman Telegram, Russian Rev.) breaking his neutrality.
* “Moral Diplomacy”: promoted democracy, self-determination, opposed imperialism
* 14 Points (1918) to foster international cooperation and global peace
Promoted LON (without consulting Congress), U.S. Senate rejected membership
Woodrow Wilson (1913-21): Leadership style and social climate
Leadership style:
* Academic background, idealistic, but often unwilling to compromise
Had a stroke (1919), incapacitated, unable to govern for the rest of his tenure
* Strong orator, held regular press conferences (uncommon at the time), used propaganda during WWI to gain public support
* Very involved in policy-making, overstepped checks and balances (did not receive Congressional approval on LON)
Social climate
* American society disillusioned after FWW, Wilson’s involvement in foreign affairs at odds with the public’s isolationist outlook
* Rising xenophobia, nationalism and suspicion with the First Red Scare, hostility to immigration
Warren G. Harding (1921–1923): Domestic and Foreign Affairs
Domestic:
* Promoted deregulation and limited government intervention, laissez-faire, protectionist policies, “buy American”
* Fordney-McCumber Tariff (1922), raising tariffs on imported goods to protect domestic industries by 14%
* Prohibition: Volstead Act 1919 banned alcohol and enforced the Eighteenth Amendment, prohibiting the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages. Led to the rise of organized crime and speakeasies
* Laissez-Faire approach epitomized by ‘less government in business and more business in government’
Foreign policy:
* Isolationism, Congress passed a series of Neutrality Acts which steered the U.S. away from international entanglements and limited their support for war, declined U.S. membership in the League of Nations
* Declared that the USA should seek ‘no part in directing the destinies of the world’
* Emergency Quota Act 1921: restricted yearly immigration to 357,000, and implementing a 3% quota. Reflected the public hostility to immigration
Warren G. Harding (1921–1923): Leadership style and social climate
Leadership style:
* Utilized his background as a newspaper publisher to engage effectively with the press
* Featured his dog, Laddie Boy, in the media to cultivate a relatable public image
* At the time was popular, but scandals during his administration (Teapot Dome corruption scandal, affairs) eroded his reputation. TDS 1921 was the worst contemporary case of political corruption.
* Delegated significant authority to cabinet members and advisors (corruption leads to TDS)
Social climate:
* Disillusioned people resonated with Harding’s message “return to normalcy” as a campaign slogan, resonating with the public’s desire for stability and pre-war life
* First Red Scare: heightened hostilities to outsiders, threat of anarchy and lawlessness
* 1920: landslide victory of 60.3%, promised a return to ‘normalcy,’ unelectable Democrats, defeated Democratic candidates James M. Cox (103 ballots) and Franklin D. Roosevelt who still platformed Wilson’s idealist vision
* Died in office from a heart attack
* Republicanism and conservativism the hegemonic and prevailing ideology during the 20s
Calvin Coolidge (1923-28): Domestic and Foreign affairs
Domestic:
* Advocated for limited / minimal government intervention, and fiscal conservatism
* Worked to balance the federal budget and reduce national debt
* Restored public confidence in the White House after the scandals of his predecessor’s administration, and left office with considerable popularity (before the rumblings of the GD)
* Oversaw the implementation of the 1924 Johnson-Reed immigration Act, which restricted immigration to 2% of the 1890 population
Foreign:
* Emphasized isolationism, avoiding entanglement in international alliances, refused to join the LON
* Supported disarmament efforts, including the Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928 to renounce war
Calvin Coolidge (1923-28): Leadership and social climate
Leadership:
* Reserved and cautious communication style, cautious relations with the public and press, earning the nickname “Silent Cal”
* Utilised radio broadcasts to reach the American public directly
* Preferred a hands-off approach to governance, delegating to cabinet members
* Demonstrated integrity and honesty, restoring public trust after previous scandals
* “Keep cool with Coolidge” was his 1924 election slogan, epitomising his deisre to change nothing
* Took naps in the White House, do-nothing president
Social climate:
* Harding’s VP, sworn in 1923, no re-election in 1928 (grief of son)
* Continuation of laissez-faire, booming and roaring 20s of investmenets and the stock market, period of hire purchase / buying on the margin / Bull market / overconfidence and American consumerism: “the chief business of the American people is business”
* Subscribed to social Darwinism, showing hositility towards immigrants
Herbert Hoover (1928-33): Domestic and Foreign affairs
Domestic:
* “Rugged individualism”: continuation of hard-line Republican beliefs
* Limited federal efforts to address poverty and unemployment during the Great Depression, believing in voluntarism (businesses, private charities, local / state) over federal responsibility for welfare
Believed in voluntarism over direct government intervention, i.e. asked the rich and businesses to support the poor during the GD
* Signed the Smoot-Hawley Tariff (1930), worsening global trade and deepening the Depression, 20% on all goods and services
* Opposed direct relief but supported public works projects, like the Hoover Dam, to stimulate employment (21k people)
* 1929: Established the Federal Farm Board to buy key crops from famrers anf stabilise prices (becomes the AAA)
* 1930: Sets up the President Emergency Committee for Employment to find work for the unemployed and encouraged voluntarism.
* 1932: Reconstruction Finacne Corp was set up with $300m to fund releif prjects, showing an attempt at welfare provision. However, this was weakened by the Republican stronghold in Congress unwilling to compromise their beleifs. Deemed “too little too late”
* Bonus Army March 1932: 40k verterans had marches to Washington to demand early bonus payments, but were met with agression by the police and the army. Hoover supported the decision to burn encampments, citing fears of communism.
* Hoovervilles named after him; at its peak the Seattle Hooverville was 9 acres and had 10k reisdents.
Foreign policy:
* Focused on non-interventionism but supported economic engagement, such as the Good Neighbor Policy foundations in Latin America.
* Advocated for international disarmament but struggled with global economic instability.
* Oversaw the implementation of the National Origins Formula (1929) which limited immigration to 150k
Herbert Hoover (1928-33): Leadership style and social climate
Leadership:
* A self-made millionaire, epitomised the American Dream.
* He lacked charismatic leadership and was a poor orator, as his speeches were laden with statistics and dreary. Seen as distant and rigid, formal interactions with the press.
* Blighted by the GD, and his handling of the Bonus Army March
* Admittedly, he allowed his Republican principles blind him from the abject suffering of the poor, but he did at least try to alleviate some of the issues his administration faced.
* Rugged individualism: believed in personal repsonsibility and mininal state intervention in people’s lives.
Social climate:
* GD dominated his tenure, unemployment and poverty at hisotric heights.
* Instead of Republicanism being the hegemonic ideal, it now showed to be falliable. People increasingly sought after the Democrats, who offered optimism and welfare, leading to FDR’s landlslide electoral victory in 1932.
FDR (1933-45): Domestic and foreign policy
Domestic Policy:
* Championed New Deal programs and alphabet agencies, significantly expanding government’s role in social welfare.
* Keynesian economics: “The only thing we have to fear is fear itself”, using deficit spending to boost recovery.
* Supported workers’ rights, welfare, public construction projects to alleviate the GD
* His policies disproportionately helped poor white males who were most affected by the GD (manufacturing and farming hit the hardest), nonetheless it marginalised minorities and women
Foreign Policy:
* Initially followed isolationism, passing Neutrality Acts (1935–1939) to avoid involvement in WWII.
* Shifted towards interventionism, supporting Britain and the Allies with Cash & Carry (1939) the Lend-Lease Act (1941).
* Led the U.S. into WWII after Pearl Harbor (1941), focusing on a Europe-first strategy.
* Helped shape the United Nations and post-war global order.
* Set up Japanese internment camps, which held 120k Japanese American citizens
FDR (1933-1945): Leadership style and social climate
Leadership:
* Re-elected 3 times, 4 terms
* Led the nation through the Great Depression, SWW, transformed America into a Western superpower / global policeman
* Resilience demonstrated by his disability, paralysed from polio. Media avoided taking pictures of him on his wheelchair, showing their admiration of his presidential strength
* FDR was also a master broadcaster, reaching out to his people in his ‘Fireside Chats’ that created an intimacy between the public and their president. Charismatic communicator
* “Happy days are here again” election song for 1932 insitilled a sense of optimism within the height of the GD
* Labelled the Republican policies of Hoover as the “Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: Destruction, Despair, Delay, Doubt “
Social climate:
* Arguably the greatest decade of change, due to the GD and the mobilisation of WW2
Impact of US entry to the FWW 1917-18
- Left a society disenchanted with foreign contact, retreating to an insular and isolationist outlook to foreign affairs.
- Left a debt of $32bn, and 116k men died.
- People fought in a war that they had not intention of joining in the first place, and resented Wilson for reneging on his promise
First Red Scare (1919-20)
- Russian Revolution 1917 has established the Communist USSR, striking fear in the middle class that their own wealth could be vulnerable to a uprising by workers.
- Coupled with the short deep recession of 1919-21, workers were even more resentful of the government and the economic situation, making communism even more appealing and fuelling the Red Scare. This differed from the SRS after the SWW due to there not being a depression, tehrefore workers were less likely to be on strike.
- The CLP and CPUSA, compromised of anarchists and communsits, distribuited pamphlets urging workers to strike: in 1919 there wer emore than 3600 strikes and 1 in 4 workers struck
- “Red Hunting” and Palmer (US Attorney General) raids break out to target suspected communists; the FBI raids 33 cities and makes 5-10k arrests of communists
- US post offfice discovers 36 bombs addressed to state officials
- Anarchists Sacco and Vanzetti are accused of murder and robberty, and are executed by electric chair on baseless evidence, showing how immigrants in particular werre scapegoated during the FRS
- Palmers predictionof a Red Revolution does not materialise, and the fears of communism were more imagined that real compared to the SRS. Anti-communist hysteria eventually dissipates, but nonetheless is underlying. Lasted a much shorter time compared to the decade of the SRS
Causes and Impact of the Great Depression (1929-45)
Caused by:
* Prevailing Republican attitudes of deregulation and laissez-faire meant limited federal protections against the GD
*American attitudes: buy now pay later, hire purchase and buying on the margin, Bull Market and overconfidence in the economy, not enough money in circulation to fund the excessive consumerism of the 20s, Bull Market (overconfidence in investing in the stock market), risky speculation of ordinary people depsite no financial knowledge
* Overproduction: continued mass-production of goods, especially in agriculture and consumer goods, facilitated by Taylorism and mechnisation, depsite there not being the same high wartime demand. This meant stock built up, lower prices, bankruptcy.
* Weak banking system: Not only were banks giving out risky loans, but they also did not do so in a coordinated manner especially for small ruralo banks. This was addressed by FDRs Emergency Banking Act of 1933 and the Banking Act / Glass-Steagall Act of 1933
Impacts:
* Global trade plummets by 66%, unemployment is 24.9% at its peak
* Rise in soup kitchens, bread lines and unemployment centres
Alphabet Agencies / Thr first new deal
- FDR granted emergency powers by Congress, typically reserved for wartime, to push through unprecendented legislation
- He passed 77 laws in his first 100 days, a precendent set to that measured subsequent presidents
- Emergency Banking act 1933: shuts all banks and declares a national bank holdiay. Gives the executive the authriotiy to assess the banks for solvency (3 categories)
- Economy Act 1933: Cuts government slalarises by 15%, saving 1 billion for the budget. It also forbids memebrs of the same family working in the govenrment.
- Beer-wine revenue Act 1933: Legalises the sale of alcohol, overturning the Volstead Act and tghe 18th Amendment. It allows the govenrment to tax alcohol, restricting the infleunce of crime
- The Banking Act / Glass-Steagall Act 1933: established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which insured deposits, and separated commercial and investment banking. This separation aimed to prevent speculative activities and ensure safer bank operations.
Alpghabet agencies
* Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) 1933: Provided jobs to the unemployed on projects like reforestation, park maintenance, flood control
* FERA: provides $500m relief to directly help the unemployed, poor and hungre. Provided jobs in maintenance and construction projects, and distribuited funds to state and local governments to provide food, clothing, and shelter to those in need.
* Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) 1933: Helped farmers by reducing agricultural production and increasing prices, paying farmers to leave some land unplanted to reduce crop surpluses
* TVA: provides electricity generation and flood control projects to rural areas, boosts interconnectivity to rural areas
* Public Works Administration (PWA) 1933: Funded large-scale construction projects such as bridges, schools, and hospitals
* National Recovery Administration (NRA) 1933: Simulated industrial recovery by establishing codes on fair competition, price controls, wages and working conditions
The Second New Deal
The Second New Deal was a phase of FDR’s New Deal programs, introduced between 1935 and 1936, in response to criticism of the shortcomings of the initial New Deal. It had a greater emphasis on long-term social reform and lasting economic security, as opposed to the temporary recovery efforts. The lowered federal spending in the SND compared to the FND triggered the Roosevelt Recession.
The Social Security Act (1935) established a national system of old-age pensions, unemployment insurance, and aid for the disabled. It was the first time the federal government took responsibility for the economic security of its citizens, laying the foundation for the modern welfare state in America.
The Works Progress Administration (WPA), established in 1935, was a massive public works program that employed millions of Americans to work on projects such as building roads, bridges and schools, as well as funding the arts, theater, and writers’ projects. The WPA provided millions of jobs and significantly reduced unemployment.
The Wagner Act (1935) protected workers’ rights to organize and join unions. As this was the first time trade unions were nationally recognised, this empowered the fight for greater equality for workers, leading to a significant increase in union membership and labor rights.
The Revenue Act of 1935, also known as the “Wealth Tax Act” raised taxes on the wealthy, as Roosevelt’s plan to redistribute wealth to mitigate wealth inequality in America. Understandably, this act faced backlash by Conservatives and business owners, but was popular among working-class Americans.
Democrats as the unelectable opposition during the 20s
- Wilson had left a society disenchanted with foregin contact, they were deeply xenophobic and cynical, isolationist stance, disgraced presidency, demanding reduced immigration and avoidance of foreign entanglements
- The Democrat ticket of Cox and Roosevelt in the 1920 election followed Wilson’s legacy in placing excessive focus on the League of Nations and internationalism, failing to recognize the socio-economic conditions of the contemporary American public, who were more concerned with economic security and post-war recovery
- Further, the Democrats were riddled with internal problems, partially due to their outdated two-thirds rule, which required presidential nominees within the Democratic Party to receive at least two-thirds of the delegate votes at conventions.
- Selecting a candidate for the 1924 election was difficult and time-consuming, portraying the Democratic Party as weak, incompetent, and unable to be an effective opposition to the Republicans.
- Moreover, taking into account the polarising schism that divided the older Democrats and the younger visionaries in the party / Democrats in the north and the south, it took 103 ballots, pitting politicians against one another at the convention, to finally select Davis as the Democratic nominee, who inevitably lost to Coolidge in a crushing defeat.
- This demonstrates how the Democrats were an unelectable opposition that was unable to compete effectively against the unshakeable Republican stronghold in America during 1917-31.
- On balance, Republican ideas were more influential, as it is unlikely people were even considering electing the Democrats regardless of their problems and failures simply due to the sheer success of Republican policies. The success of their political philosophy in lifting the public out of post-war depression and rebuilding the country was a more convincing appeal that outweighed any potential favouring of the Democrats.
- The Democrats were unable to compete against Republicanism, especially with the KKK associations, despite Harding’s administration being mired by the Teapot Dome scandal, one of the worst cases of government corruption during the time, which shows how enamoured the public was with Republicanism that they were willing to overlook the worst forms of government corruption.
Criticisms of FDR
Roosevelt’s New Deal has been portrayed as a destructive waste of the federal budget, during the Great Depression, especially by conservative Republicans.
FDR’s attempt at “court-packing” has also proven to be highly contentious. The Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937 would allow FDR to appoint an additional justice for every justice over 70 years of age. Thus, Roosevelt could add six of his own justices to the court. With two liberals already on the bench, that would put the odds in FDR’s favor for the about upcoming cases on Social Security and the National Labor Relations Act. He used a “fireside chat” to make his appeal to the people. This was such a clear act of partisanship and violating the separation of powers principle, that this act was dropped.
With FDR’s leadership, the presidential powers of the executive gradually expanded, and those in Congress feared that it would turn into a dictatorship by giving one person too much power, elective dictatorship, espcially as he served more than 2 terms which was the ocnvention
Impact of WW2
- Uemployment and poverty from the GD was dramatically reduced as the USA mobilised for wartime manufacturing (C&C, L&L)
- Industrial profits rose form 17m to 28m in 1943, and was a much needed boom to America’s stagnant economy
- America emerges as a global superpower as the rest of the European economies are recovering
- America benefits from the bolstered economy and military
- Double V camapign, EO8802 desegregates the army to allow BA to work towards the war effort
How accurate is it to say that the American Presidents were “do nothing” Presidents in the period 1917-33?
In the years 1917-33, the American presidents played an instrumental role in shaping the socio-economic landscape and political attitudes of the USA. By analyzing the tenures of Wilson, Harding and Coolidge, and Hoover, this essay will ultimately argue that the presidents were not “do-nothing,” but instead had a drastic impact for years to come in the changing role of the president, and their political leadership had widespread and consequential effects.
Initially, Wilson campaigned to stay out of WWI, maintaining a perspective of neutrality. However, the sinking of the Lusitania in 1915 and the Zimmerman telegram of 1917 ultimately became the tipping points for Wilson’s involvement and his drastic decision to enter the war on the Allies’ side to defend the democratic values of America and protect them from the “tyranny of autocracy” Therefore, this shows how Wilson was not a “do-nothing president” as he made the contentious decision to reject impartiality and involve the USA directly in the war, much to the outrage of Americans who had an isolationist perspective on foreign affairs. Arguably, involvement in the war, despite the chaos it caused to America with $32 billion debt and 116,000 American casualties, catalysed Wilson’s desire for America to be a greater player on the global stage, citing the significant role America should have in creating global peace as his main motivator. This prompted Wilson to draw up his 14 Points and establish the League of Nations, which was an organisation Wilson envisioned would create global cooperation and prevent conflict. Despite his utopian ideals, much of the public was adverse to his progressive agenda, as they were still recovering from WWI and believed that entry into the war was a mistake. Moreover, Wilson is criticised for not consulting Congress when promoting the League of Nations and for being too involved in drafting bills and legislation, despite being only the figurehead of the nation and the head of the executive branch. Traditionally, the president would pass or veto laws rather than draft them. This appeared to be overstepping his boundaries in the executive branch and violating the system of checks and balances underpinned by the Constitution. This shows how he was not a “do-nothing president” by any means, as people even believed that he was overreaching his presidential powers by breaking America’s insular and isolationist stance. A substantial majority believed that the entry into WWI was a mistake, illustrating the far-reaching consequences of his political decisions. Therefore, Wilson’s erratic tenure shows how he was not a “do-nothing” president, as his progressive agenda led to upheavals and strong social discontent in America, which in turn contributed to the national prominence of the Republicans for the decade. Wilson’s presidency clearly had a seminal influence in shaping America’s political landscape, and he was clearly not a “do-nothing” president.
By contrast, the ostensibly insignificant tenure of Harding appears to illustrate how they were “do-nothing” presidents—yet their actions had major underlying effects, such as contributing to the Great Depression in 1929. Harding’s staunch Republican philosophy solidified the public’s approval of Republicanism and ensured that they dominated the presidency and Congress for many years to come. It helped America “return to normalcy,” as people wanted stability and steadiness following Wilson’s radical agenda. His platform expressed a rejection of progressive ideals and a push to restore America to its pre-war state, emphasising “laissez-faire” policies, isolationism, and deregulation of the economy and business. Further, he advocated for Americans to “buy American” to boost domestic industries, hiking import taxes through the 1922 Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act, contributing to the (superficial) boom of the 1920s. Moreover, he curbed immigration to 375,000 a year through the Emergency Quota Act of 1921, which typified contemporary American sentiment of suspicion towards immigrants following the “Red Scare” after the Russian Revolution. This shows Harding was not a “do-nothing president” as he completely reversed Wilson’s progressive agenda and actively worked to reject those ideas, returning to a traditional conservative country. He famously called for “less government in business and more business in government,” the epitome of Republican ideals. By extension, the impact of Harding’s presidency is not to be underestimated, as the combination of limited federal intervention in the economy and the encouragement of unfettered consumerism ultimately enabled the drastic and debilitating economic downturn during the Great Depression. Therefore, to label Harding as a “do-nothing” president is misleading and fails to consider the underlying consequences of his tenure, which instilled the laissez-faire approach that contributed to the economic depression.
Hoover’s pitfalls clearly illustrate him as more than just a “do-nothing” president, as he even exacerbated the situation further, influencing the American public to reject Republicanism. This is evident in the events of the Bonus March in 1932. Unemployment peaked at 24.9% at the height of the Great Depression, and “Hoovervilles” were a visible stain on his administration. The demolition of any ounce of credibility he had left ultimately paved the way for the unprecedented resurgence of the Democrats in the 1932 presidential election against FDR. Hoover played a key role in shaping public perception of the Republican Party; his huge blunders summarise his disastrous tenure.
In summary, the presidential terms of Wilson, Harding, and Hoover can be characterised as highly influential, and this period marked a turning point in national American politics. The American public shifted their political beliefs from Democrat, following the detrimental legacy of Wilson, to staunchly favouring Republicanism during Harding’s term in office, only to ultimately switch back to the Democrats following Hoover’s blunders. From the highly interventionist approach of Wilson to the adoption of an isolationist stance by Coolidge and Harding, to the regressive leadership of Hoover, the period of 1917-33 is defined by significant upheavals in politics and changing leadership styles. Thus, labelling the presidents as “do-nothing” would be highly premature and misleading, as it fails to take into account the impact of their time in office.
How far do you agree that the primary reason for Democrat success in the 1932 presidential election was FDR’s winning personality? (To what extent were Hoover’s policies responsible for the results of the 1932 presidential election?)
The landslide success of the Democrats in the 1932 presidential election marked a turning point in American politics, yet there is a contentious debate over which factors most significantly contributed to Roosevelt’s decisive victory. By analysing Roosevelt’s charisma, the detrimental effects of the Great Depression, and the egregious shortcomings of Hoover, this essay will ultimately argue that Hoover’s failures were the most consequential factor in determining the outcome of the election.
It is undeniable that Roosevelt’s personal appeal and charisma played a role in drawing voters to the Democratic Party, which had previously suffered a decade of disunity and political infighting. Roosevelt’s talent for public speaking, his ability to communicate his motives and intentions clearly and without condescension, resonated deeply with an electorate desperate for decisive leadership in the wake of the economic turmoil of the 1920s. In stark contrast to Hoover, who spoke hurriedly and stumbled over his words, making his message seem vague and ambiguous, Roosevelt captured the hearts of the American people with his speeches. He chastised the Republicans for their inability to address the devastating economic crisis, famously referring to them as the “Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse.” Despite being paralyzed from the waist down due to polio, Roosevelt endeavoured to stand during speeches, projecting an image of strength and commitment to the American people. FDR’s promises of a “New Deal,” pledging welfare support and relief to those devastated by the Depression, resonated strongly with voters who had endured years of Republican laissez-faire policies that ignored the struggles of the working class. He famously vowed to do “whatever it takes” to stabilise the economy and help America recover from its worst economic downturn. Roosevelt’s political experience, having served as the governor of New York, solidified his image as a competent and capable candidate. Unsurprisingly, this resulted in him winning 44 states and 80% of the popular vote, a clear indication of the public’s preference for Roosevelt over Hoover.
However, while FDR’s charm undoubtedly played a role, it was magnified by the public’s deep resentment toward Hoover and the Republican Party’s failures during the Depression. Without the widespread disillusionment with Hoover’s handling of the crisis, it is unlikely Roosevelt’s appeal would have resonated as strongly. The electorate, who had previously supported Republican policies of rugged individualism, only turned to Roosevelt because of the economic catastrophe brought on by Republican mismanagement.
The catastrophic effects of the Great Depression clearly illustrated the failures of the Republican Party and Hoover in particular. Despite the apparent success of Republican policies during the “boom” of the 1920s, much of this prosperity was illusory, built on unchecked consumerism and unregulated business practices. The economy was precariously sustained by credit, with too little money in circulation to cover the excessive borrowing and spending. The Republican government’s laissez-faire approach, exemplified by Presidents Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover, encouraged uninhibited consumerism, deregulation, and corporate exploitation of workers, leading to the inevitable collapse of Wall Street in 1929. The resulting Great Depression caused global trade to plummet by 66% and unemployment to soar to nearly 25%. Understandably, the American public blamed the Republicans for their inability to foresee and mitigate the crisis, leading to a dramatic shift in political support to the Democrats in 1932. While some argue that the Depression was a global phenomenon that would have been difficult for any government to predict or control, many historians contend that Hoover’s specific failures made the situation worse. His administration’s decision to enact the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act, which further restricted international trade, exacerbated the economic downturn. Hoover’s calls for voluntary aid from wealthy individuals and businesses, rather than providing federal intervention and welfare support, demonstrated a lack of political leadership and understanding of the severity of the situation. These failures cemented Hoover’s reputation as an inadequate president and led to his crushing defeat in 1932. Perhaps the most critical moment that solidified Hoover’s unpopularity was his handling of the Bonus Army march in 1932. World War I veterans, who had been promised a bonus payout for their service, marched to Washington to demand early payment due to the dire economic conditions. Hoover’s decision to call in the military to forcibly remove the veterans and destroy their encampments sparked public outrage, further eroding his support. The image of veterans being violently dispersed by the government solidified the perception that Hoover was indifferent to the suffering of ordinary Americans, contributing to his historical reputation as one of the worst presidents in U.S. history. On balance, the primary reason for Democratic success in the 1932 election is largely attributed to Hoover’s failures. His mishandling of the Depression, the Bonus Army incident, and his poor leadership during the worst economic crisis in American history drove voters away from the Republicans and toward Roosevelt. While Roosevelt’s personality and charm undoubtedly set him apart, it is unlikely the electorate would have turned to the Democrats if the economy had remained strong. The downfall of the Republican Party and Hoover’s administration created the necessary conditions for Roosevelt’s overwhelming electoral victory.
In conclusion, Hoover’s failures were the most consequential factor in his crushing defeat in 1932. His inability to address the Depression, his mishandling of key events like the Bonus Army march, and his refusal to offer meaningful federal intervention left the American public disillusioned with the Republican Party. While Roosevelt’s winning personality helped secure the Democratic victory, it was Hoover’s disastrous presidency that truly paved the way for FDR’s success.
How far do Republican ideas account for the fact that there was a Republican president and Republican majority in Congress in the years 1921-31?
During the years 1921-23, the American nation was gripped by Republicanism, with Republican politicians dominating both the presidency and Congress. By analysing the popularity of Republican policies and ideas, the contentious legacy of Wilson, and the continued failures of the Democrats, this essay will ultimately argue that the appeal of Republican ideas was the greatest contributing factor.
Republican ideas and policies enacted by Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover were critical factors for the success of Republicanism during the 1920s. Harding’s persuasive campaign of a “return to normalcy” strongly resonated with the electorate, as they simply wanted a stable and steady life after the upheavals of World War I and Wilson’s erratic tenure. Harding achieved the greatest landslide victory in Republican history, and Republican majorities in both the House and the Senate were largely attributed to his coattails, as his success carried over to congressional elections. Many wanted to return to the USA’s previous isolationist stance, reducing involvement in international affairs and cutting taxation—everything Harding promised to do—thus significantly contributing to the popularity of the Republicans in the 1920 election. Moreover, there was still a strong sentiment of suspicion towards immigrants that did not truly dissipate after the First Red Scare of 1919-20. The passing of the Emergency Quota Act of 1921, which slashed immigration to only 375,000 a year, helped alleviate mounting public concern over immigration, demonstrating the capability of the Republicans to deliver on what the contemporary public demanded, thus contributing to the surge in popularity of Republicanism. Furthermore, the laissez-faire approach of governance by Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover collectively generated an ostensible boom period in the 1920s, as the deliberate deregulation of businesses allowed the economy to not only recover from World War I but also thrive. Therefore, this evidently suggests that Republican policies were working, and the electorate was quite complacent in keeping their votes Republican throughout this decade. People were encouraged to “Buy American,” allowing consumerism to skyrocket, with people purchasing goods such as radios, refrigerators, and cars like never before during this period. Thus, the economic prosperity that arose from Republican policies was instrumental in contributing to the complete domination of the Republicans in both the presidency and Congress. Americans were largely satisfied with the lack of federal intervention in both foreign and domestic affairs and therefore continued to vote Republican.
An integral reason for the unshakeable grip that Republicanism had over America would be the devastating and detrimental legacy of the Democrats after the end of Wilson’s tenure in 1921. Initially, the American people had a favourable perspective of Wilson due to his stance of neutrality and his reluctance to be involved in foreign wars. In contrast, the shift from his isolationist viewpoint to directly entering World War I in 1917 ultimately soured public perception of him, undermining his presidency. Due to the end of the war, there had been short, sharp economic depressions that caused unemployment to rise to 5,010,000 in 1921. As a consequence, there was great social discontent in America—strikes, riots, and protests were commonplace, expressing citizens’ frustrations at the Democratic government’s actions. Further, the public’s poor perception of Wilson was exacerbated by his foreign policy—Wilson’s 14 points advocated for America to be a champion of world peace on the international stage and outlined his plans to set up the League of Nations. Wilson wanted to be the figurehead of this organisation, but there was great resistance to this as people still held insular beliefs about America not being involved in foreign affairs. Thus, Wilson’s attempt was a huge failure and was blocked by Congress, showing the weaknesses of the Democratic Party. This starkly contrasts with the Republican ideas of a “return to normalcy” and reinstating America’s isolationist policies. Another point would be that the people of America felt that Wilson took far too substantial a part in government decision-making, as he did not consult Congress before promoting the League of Nations and believed that presidents in the executive branch ought to also be a part of the legislative process, drafting bills and setting up legislation themselves. For many politicians, this was an unwelcome change in presidential behaviour, as it violated the principle of separation of powers underpinned by the Constitution, showing how Wilson’s radical and overly progressive agenda offended many and led to a distrust and lack of faith in the Democratic Party. Clearly, this shows how the Democrats failed to consider what America wanted at that time, and Wilson’s progressive ideals conflicted with the interests of the people. As a result, this made citizens attracted to the appeal of Republicanism—the “normalcy” Harding promised. This encapsulated the Republican notion of “laissez faire” (restricting federal government, being more insular) and thus promoted the stability and security of pre-war life. Therefore, this shows how the failed legacy of Wilson provided the perfect conditions for Harding to rise to power and for Republicanism to become so popular during the 1920s, as people had lost complete faith in the Democrats to lead the country. The blunders of the Democrats were a prerequisite for Republican ideas to gain traction in the US, evidenced by the landslide victory of Harding in 1921. Thus, the poor decision-making of Wilson was crucial in allowing Republicanism to gain national prominence and dominate both the White House and Congress.
Not only was the disgrace of the former Democratic president enough for the public to reject their political ideology, but the continued failures of the Democrats during 1927-31 also cemented America’s resolve to not vote for them. The Democrats had created a society that was disenchanted with foreign contact, entrenched with xenophobia, and desperate for a more insular America, with greater calls to restrict immigration. The Democrat ticket of Cox and Roosevelt in the 1920 election followed Wilson’s legacy in placing excessive focus on the League of Nations and internationalism, failing to recognize the socio-economic conditions of the contemporary American public, who were more concerned with economic security and post-war recovery, such as deflation and high unemployment, unlike Harding, who and the subsequent Republican presidents prioritised the needs of the American people. Therefore, this enabled Harding to achieve such a remarkable victory in the 1920 election, as the public understandably prioritised restoring the economy and stabilising the country, which were key components of the Republican manifestos. Further, the Democrats were riddled with internal problems, partially due to their outdated two-thirds rule, which required presidential nominees within the Democratic Party to receive at least two-thirds of the delegate votes at conventions. The north and south wings of the Democrats were locked in an irreconcilable conflict and could not decide who to elect as a candidate for the upcoming election. Selecting a candidate for the 1924 election was difficult and time-consuming, portraying the Democratic Party as weak, incompetent, and unable to be an effective opposition to the Republicans. Moreover, taking into account the polarising schism that divided the older Democrats and the younger visionaries in the party, it took 103 ballots, pitting politicians against one another at the convention, to finally select Davis as the Democratic nominee, who inevitably lost to Coolidge in a crushing defeat. This demonstrates how the Democrats were an unelectable opposition that was unable to compete effectively against the unshakeable Republican stronghold in America during 1917-31. On balance, Republican ideas were more influential, as it is unlikely people were even considering electing the Democrats regardless of their problems and failures simply due to the sheer success of Republican policies. The success of their political philosophy in lifting the public out of post-war depression and rebuilding the country was a more convincing appeal that outweighed any potential favouring of the Democrats. The Democrats were unable to compete against Republicanism despite Harding’s administration being mired by the Teapot Dome scandal, one of the worst cases of government corruption during the time, which shows how enamoured the public was with Republicanism that they were willing to overlook the worst forms of government corruption.
In summary, the Republican ideas and policies of the three presidents—Harding, Hoover, and Coolidge—were the primary reason for their impenetrable success in both the presidency and Congress. While the sustained inadequacies of the Democrats did contribute and perhaps maintain the elite superiority status of the Republicans, ultimately the allure of Republicanism during the years of 1921-31, with their strong ideas and the public’s overwhelming belief in their ability to solve the economic problems of the nation, prevailed. The time of 1921-31 can thus be characterised by the public’s overwhelming faith in the Republican approach to governance and their inability to see the Democrats as a legitimate political alternative.
