Soceity and Cultrue in chnage Flashcards
The life of women: 1917-33
Disenfranchiesed until the 19th amendement in 1920. Femals were banned from alw courts and shcools. Most worked as homemakers doing houshold tasks for 50 hours a week. From 1917 to 1933, women in America faced significant limitations despite gaining the right to vote in 1920 (19th Amendment). Many marriage and employment laws still restricted their autonomy—wives often could not own property independently, open bank accounts without a husband’s permission, or access birth control legally (until 1936). Workplace discrimination was rampant, with women paid far less than men and largely confined to low-wage jobs like teaching, domestic work, or factory labor. Additionally, social expectations pressured women to prioritize homemaking over careers, and divorce laws heavily favored men. While the flapper era of the 1920s symbolized newfound freedom for some young women, racial and economic barriers meant Black, immigrant, and working-class women faced even harsher discrimination in wages, healthcare, and social mobility. Flspper movement symobolised the rejection of the Gibson girl, but they were nonethless sneered by conservatives.
Prominent female figures in the fight for woemn’s rights, 1917-80
Margaret Sanger – Birth control activist; founded Planned Parenthood and fought for women’s reproductive rights.
Fannie Peck – Founded the Housewives’ League of Detroit, empowering Black women in economic activism during the Great Depression.
Frances Perkins – First female Cabinet member (FDR’s Labor Secretary); pushed for labor reforms like the minimum wage and Social Security.
Eleanor Roosevelt – First Lady and human rights advocate; promoted women’s roles in politics and helped draft the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Betty Friedan – Wrote The Feminine Mystique (1963), sparking second-wave feminism; co-founded NOW (National Organization for Women).
Phyllis Schlafly – Anti-feminist leader; campaigned against the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) and promoted traditional gender roles. Eagle forum had 50k memebrs. STOP cmapaign.
Ti-Grace Atkinson – Radical feminist; broke with NOW to form The Feminists, advocating for complete gender equality, including abolishing marriage.
Jo Freeman – Feminist writer and activist; key figure in women’s liberation, documented feminist movements and fought for political representation.
Impact of the Great Depression on woemns rights
Impact of the Great Depression
Job Discrimination – Many believed women (especially married ones) “stole” jobs from men, leading to firings and bans on hiring women. First fired, last hired pricniple.
Increased Labor Force Participation – Poor women, especially Black and immigrant women, took low-wage jobs (domestic work, factories) out of necessity.
New Deal Reforms – Frances Perkins (first female Cabinet member) helped pass labor protections, but many excluded domestic/agricultural workers (disproportionately women of color). She passed legislation advocating for a 40 hur working week, bminimum wage.
Declining Birth Rates – Economic hardship delayed marriage and childbirth, indirectly fueling later feminist arguments about women’s autonomy.
Many women did beocme the solde breadowinenrs when ,ales, who worked in n=manugfacturing and agriculture became unemployed.
The New deal priortised men: the PWA, WPA and CCC was only ellligible for one mmebr of each family, and did not fhire woemn for the jobs. NRA allowed the unewyual pay of wages between gedners.
Impact of the SWW on mwomens rights
Rosie the Riveter & Workforce Surge – Millions of women (6+ million in war industries) took “men’s jobs,” proving their capability. They worked in insdustried neerver previously before, such as the Womens land Army, the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP), shoiwng a shift in the gender norms, in a socially accepting way, as it was seen as patriotic to help the country.
Temporary Gains – Wages rose, childcare expanded through the Lnaham avt 1941 which provided childcare to 130k woemn, and therefore allowed them to pruseu emplpoyment, but post-war propaganda pushed women back into homemaking.
Racial Divisions – White women benefited most; Black/Hispanic women faced segregation even in war jobs. Desgergation of the defence indsuitry also led to white and coloured woemn working together, through this was not wiothout hisotility or racism.
It laid the gorund work for the second wave of femeinisn, championing soci-economic freedoms not just political voting rights,
However, in the longtemr, aft erthe war, woemn had to give up their job in faovur of men, despite 3/4 of them being reluctant to do so. Crtically 1/2 married woem left the workforce. Contradiction Exposed – The gap between wartime opportunity and post-war repression fueled feminist anger. It led to the creation of feminsit mobvements and mbolisatio.n.
The impact of suburbia on woemn, 1941-60
The rise of suburbia in the 1940s–1960s reinforced traditional gender roles, trapping many white middle-class women in a cycle of domesticity while fueling the feminist revolt that followed. After WWII, government policies and mass suburbanization promoted the nuclear family ideal, encouraging women to leave wartime jobs and embrace homemaking. Betty Friedan, in The Feminine Mystique (1963), famously critiqued this as the “problem that has no name”—the deep dissatisfaction of educated women confined to housework and child-rearing, denied careers or intellectual fulfillment. Suburban isolation, lack of economic independence, and societal pressure to conform to the “happy housewife” stereotype created a paradox: postwar prosperity offered stability, but at the cost of women’s autonomy. These conditions laid the groundwork for second-wave feminism, as women began organizing against systemic inequality in work, education, and reproductive rights. While suburbia symbolized the American Dream, for many women, it became a gilded cage. By 1960, 33% of the population were suburbanintes, and whist usbrubruban living looked ilike the amerrcian dream fro BAME women, to white women piviileged to live threr it was a gilded cage.
Key elgisaltion regaridng womens erights, movements, figures and events 1961-80
- Publication of The Feminine Mystique (1963) – Betty Friedan’s book exposed the dissatisfaction of suburban housewives, sparking second-wave feminism.
- JFKS the presidents commission of the the enquiry on the status of women, headed by eleanour rooselvelt
- 1963 Equal pay act
- Civil Rights Act (1964) – Title VII banned employment discrimination by sex, though enforcement was weak until feminist pressure.
- National Organization for Women (NOW) Founded (1966) – First major feminist organization, advocating for workplace equality, abortion rights, and the ERA.
- Miss America Protest (1968) – Radical feminists threw bras, makeup, and girdles into a “Freedom Trash Can,” symbolizing rejection of beauty standards. Threw stink bombs, part of the radical feminist mvoement
- Roe v. Wade (1973) – Legalized abortion, a landmark victory for reproductive rights.
- Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) Campaign (1972–1982) – Passed Congress but failed to be ratified by enough states due to conservative opposition.
- International Women’s Year (1975) – UN conference boosted global feminist solidarity.
- 1970 womens strike for eqality in pay in new york city drew in throusands of marchers, with the slogan “dont iron while the strike is hot” , memebership fo the organisation grww by 50% as a result of the mvoement.
Major Organizations:
NOW (1966) – Pushed for legal equality, workplace reforms, and the ERA.
Women’s Liberation Front (WOMEN, 1968) – Organized protests against sexist media and policies. Their statement of prupose outlined their committement to takcle sexism, dmsigoyny in the workplace and ein education, and for repreroductive freedosm.
National Women’s Political Caucus (1971) – Worked to elect feminist women to office.
Rafial deminist organisation of New York critical of mainstream feminism and pron.
1969 WOmens equity league established
Key Actions & Tactics:
Consciousness-raising groups – Women shared personal experiences to expose systemic sexism.
Protests & sit-ins – Targeting sexist workplaces, media, and government policies.
Underground abortion networks – Pre-Roe, groups like Jane Collective helped women access safe abortions.
Media campaigns – Magazines like Ms. (1971) spread feminist ideas.
Major Figures:
Betty Friedan – Author and NOW co-founder.
Gloria Steinem – Journalist and Ms. magazine founder
Kate Millett – Wrote Sexual Politics (1970), critiquing patriarchy in literature.
Phyllis Schlafly – Anti-feminist leader who defeated the ERA.
Jo freeman: Wrote the voice of the woemns liberation mmovement discussing radical feminism
ti grace atickison were radical feminists, criticsed NOW
Successes and limitations of the feminist mvoement
SUCCESSES
1. Legal & Workplace Reforms: Title VII (1964) – Banned employment discrimination based on sex. Title IX (1972) – Prohibited sex discrimination in education (transforming women’s sports and academia). Roe v. Wade (1973) – Legalized abortion (though later overturned in 2022).
2. Cultural Shifts: Challenged traditional gender roles in media, marriage, and careers. “The Personal is Political” – Made issues like domestic violence and reproductive rights public debates. Increased female enrollment in higher education and male-dominated fields (law, medicine).
3. Political Representation: National Women’s Political Caucus (1971) pushed for gender parity in government.
4. Greater legisaltive changes and political consciousness of woemn
LIMITATIONS
1. Exclusion of Marginalized Women: Early feminism focused on white, middle-class women, ignoring race, class, and LGBTQ+ issues.
2. Backlash & Unfinished Reforms: ERA Failed (1982) – Fell 3 states short of ratification due to Phyllis Schlafly’s campaign. Thje conservative backlash of the 70s meant that 50k joined her eagle forum oppositng the ratification of the ERA.
3. Contuned ineuqality: abortion Access – Even post-Roe, poor and rural women faced barriers. “Glass Ceiling” – Workplace equality improved, but wage gaps and leadership roles lagged.
4. Radical vs. liberal feminists clashed over tactics (e.g., lesbian separatism vs. mainstream reform).
5. Limited Economic Gains: Women still shouldered most unpaid domestic labor (“second shift”). Welfare and childcare policies remained inadequate, especially for working-class women.
History of US immigration pre 1917
Nation of immigrants, open door policy, peak immigration 1.2 million, in 1907. Majority of immigrants from northern europe and processed on ellise island, olny rejectied if they were disabled or chinese, or had not money or were cirminals. Thje ontl trstriciton on immigrstion was the 1882 Chinese exclusion act.
Hostility by WASPs abnd the KKK over the extent and scale of immigration, ealding to the creation of the Dillingam commission in 1907 to unvesitgate the nature of immigration. The 1911 report found that the nature and scale of immigrrstion was beginning to pose a real threat to amercian society and culture, and argued that old immgrants could assmilate into amefican culture but that new americans could not. Highlighted themes of sical dsrmwinism. Was ysed to leigitmised the immigration acts.
The Dillingham Commission (1907–1911), formally known as the United States Immigration Commission, was a significant congressional study that shaped U.S. immigration policy in the early 20th century. Its findings reinforced nativist and restrictionist views, leading to discriminatory laws in the 1920s.
Key Impacts of the Dillingham Commission
“Scientific” Racism & Racial Hierarchies
The commission classified immigrants as “old” (Northern/Western Europeans) vs. “new” (Southern/Eastern Europeans, Asians, Mexicans), claiming the latter were “less assimilable” and threatened American society.
Promoted eugenics-influenced theories that linked immigration to crime, poverty, and racial decline.
Justification for Immigration Quotas
Its reports laid the groundwork for the Emergency Quota Act (1921) and Immigration Act of 1924 (Johnson-Reed Act), which imposed strict national-origin quotas favoring Northern Europeans and excluding Asians.
Labor Exploitation & Discrimination
Found that immigrants were often paid less than native-born workers, fueling arguments that they “stole jobs” or depressed wages.
Ignored systemic labor abuses, instead blaming immigrants for poor working conditions.
Long-Term Legacy
Institutionalized xenophobic stereotypes that influenced U.S. policy for decades.
Asian exclusion policies (like the Chinese Exclusion Act) were expanded, and Mexican workers faced heightened scrutiny.
Limitations & Criticism
Flawed Methodology: The commission cherry-picked data to fit anti-immigrant biases.
Ignored Contributions: Dismissed immigrants’ role in industrialization and cultural vitality.
The Dillingham Commission’s legacy was a turn toward exclusion, shaping policies until the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act overturned its racist quotas.
Want more on how this affected specific immigrant groups?
Kye immigration ledsialgtion, 1917-20s, as well as the social climate towards immigration
Legislation
2. Immigration Act of 1917 (Barred Zone Act)
This law banned nearly all Asian immigration by creating an “Asiatic Barred Zone” (excluding Japan and the Philippines). It also introduced a literacy test for immigrants and expanded exclusions for “undesirables” (e.g., anarchists, the poor). The act reflected growing nativism and racism, especially against Chinese and Indian laborers.
- Emergency Quota Act (1921)
The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 was the first U.S. law to impose numerical limits on immigration. It established a quota system, capping annual immigration from any country at 3% of that nationality’s U.S. population in 1910. This favored Northern/Western Europeans while severely restricting Southern/Eastern Europeans, Asians, and Africans. It was a temporary fix, later replaced by stricter laws. - Johnson-Reed Act (Immigration Act of 1924)
The most restrictive immigration law yet, it cut quotas to 2% of a nationality’s U.S. population in 1890—before Southern/Eastern Europeans arrived in large numbers. It excluded all Asian immigrants (even those previously exempt, like Japanese) and introduced the National Origins Formula (fully implemented in 1929) to ensure Northern/Western Europeans dominated future immigration. - National Origins Formula (1929)
This policy made the 1924 quotas permanent, allocating visas based on the 1920 census’s ethnic composition. The goal was to preserve America’s “racial stock” by ensuring 85% of immigrants came from Northern/Western Europe. It remained in place until the 1965 Immigration Act abolished the system.
Social climate
1. The FRS meant a xenonphbia, disnechantment and hisitloty to immigrant, eespcially throse from the eastern eurorpe or italieans, who were tied to communsit and anarchist affiliations. The case of Sacco and Vanzetti in particular showed how inflamed fears over htei immmgirant status led them to be scapegoated and persecutived for a cirme they did not commit.
2. President themselved were racist and xenophibic. Coolidge subscribed to the ideas of social darwininsm, and Hoover was racist toqawards an italina congressman for his national dientity andethnicity, La Guardia. Showin hoe the rpeublicnan presidents reingforced the nationas isolationsit stance. and prevailing racism of the day.
The exepreinces of immigrant, during the gret depression etc
The meting pot was the idea that poeople of difernt ntionalities would homogenise and form and share the dominanrt american culture. Urban areas informally broke down into sperreate sedctions, such as little litlay,m chian town tetc.
Fird created english lessons for eorkers, primtoed national holdays in an effrot to americnise his workfoarece, which was 60% immgrsnt
Social darwinism wss the predeominant social theory that asserted a hierearhcy ofsuperoirity. xenophibia and legitimaided racist disicminantion o the immgrsnts
Majorty of the immgratnts were form the bootom of the heap, but there wre success stories of some italina and irsh laywyers, businesnessmen and politicians.
The large numebrs of immigrants made their vote highly valubale, which the democrate party enjoyed due to FDRs colourblind policies. Instrumental to his landslade viotry in 32. The laisisez faire policies of the republicans had made them badly damaged. The immigration resitrictions andthe impact of the great depression made america less attactric and appeling to migrate to and therefore immgration lnumbers stability during the 30s and the 40s.
First fired and last hired principle, amde them more reliant on the welfare state , increaidng hostilitiy as immigrants as freeloaders.
The impact of the SWW and immgragtation
World War II dramatically shifted U.S. immigration policies, easing restrictions for some groups while reinforcing exclusion for others:
European Refugees: The Displaced Persons Act (1948) allowed 400,000+ war refugees (mostly Eastern Europeans) to enter, though quotas still favored Northern/Western Europeans.
Chinese Exclusion Repealed (1943): To counter Japanese propaganda, the U.S. repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act, granting China a small quota (but still banning most Asian immigration). In repsonse to japanese briutality acagisnt chinese.
Mexican Workers: The Bracero Program (1942–1964) brought 4.5 million Mexican laborers for farm/railroad work, but many faced exploitation and deportation (e.g., Operation Wetback, 1954).
Japanese Internment: 120,000 Japanese Americans (mostly citizens) were forcibly detained, while Japanese immigration remained banned until 1952, due the nature of pearl harbour attack.
Businesses owned by Germand and italienas were often boycotted or damagesd and windows smashed.
tHE germans, japnese and the italians became classed as “enemy aliens”
The impact of the cold war and immigration
USA boom meant that the economy of the usa made immgraiton more appealing and mroe jobs demanded from defece sector etc. The quota sustem otlived its useulness, as the uSA asserted itsefl as a global policiemena and therefore it necessitated them to protect refguees of communism
200k cubans fled the the US under castor in 1959-62, and the USA gave them citizenship through the cuban readjustment act 1962. JFK worked to abolish the wuota system.
Imigrants from asia, apeticularly vietnma and co abodia, tripled after the 1965 Hart Cellar Act that LBJ signed, USA took in 103k vitenmaese and by the late 60s there wrre 750k vitenamese living in america.
Operation Wetback: deported 1 million latin american immigrants, a derogatory term used to refer to immgirants crossing the rio grande river.
Postwar Cold War Policies: The War Brides Act (1945) let soldiers’ foreign spouses enter, while the McCarran-Walter Act (1952) kept racial quotas but ended outright Asian exclusion.
Nationality Act of 1940 – Required fingerprinting and registration of all foreign nationals, reflecting wartime security concerns.
Bracero Program (1942–1964) – Brought 4.5+ million Mexican laborers for farm/railroad work, but many faced exploitation and mass deportations (e.g., Operation Wetback).
War Brides Act (1945) – Allowed foreign spouses and children of U.S. soldiers to immigrate (120,000+ entered, mostly European women).
Displaced Persons Act (1948) – Admitted 400,000+ WWII refugees (mostly Eastern Europeans), though quotas still favored Northern/Western Europeans.
McCarran-Walter Act (1952) – Ended total Asian exclusion but kept racist quotas; prioritized skilled immigrants and Cold War defectors.
Hart-Celler Act (1965) – Abolished racist national-origin quotas, replacing them with a system favoring family reunification and skilled workers (opening doors for Asian, African, and Latin American immigrants).
Refugee Act (1980) – Established a formal asylum system after the Vietnam War, resettling Southeast Asian refugees (e.g., 130,000+ Vietnamese).
Result: WWII exposed contradictions in U.S. immigration policies—expanding opportunities for white Europeans while maintaining systemic racism against Asians and Mexicans. These changes set the stage for the 1965 Immigration Act’s reforms.
Shifting attitudes towards immigration, reaosn for it
- Post-WWII Global Leadership & Cold War Politics
Refugee Crises: The U.S. admitted displaced persons (e.g., Displaced Persons Act, 1948) to counter Soviet influence and project humanitarianism.
Anti-Communism: The McCarran-Walter Act (1952) prioritized skilled immigrants and Cold War defectors (e.g., scientists, dissidents).
Diplomatic Pressure: Repealing racist laws (e.g., Chinese Exclusion repeal, 1943) aimed to counter Axis propaganda and win allies in Asia.
- Civil Rights Movement & Racial Equality
Growing opposition to overtly racist policies (e.g., national-origin quotas) aligned with the broader fight against segregation.
The Hart-Celler Act (1965) abolished quotas, reflecting demands for fairness from activists and lawmakers.
- Labor Demands & Economic Growth
Bracero Program (1942–1964) addressed wartime labor shortages but exposed exploitation, spurring debates over worker rights.
Post-1965, industries (tech, agriculture) relied on immigrant labor, pushing for flexible policies.
- Postcolonial & Global Realities
Decolonization and rising immigration from Asia, Africa, and Latin America forced the U.S. to address outdated exclusion laws.
Vietnam War & Refugees: The Refugee Act (1980) responded to global crises (e.g., Southeast Asian refugees).
- Cultural Shifts & Advocacy
Ethnic lobbying (e.g., by Jewish, Irish, and Asian groups) pressured Congress to end discriminatory quotas.
Media coverage of refugee crises (e.g., Cuban exiles, Vietnamese “boat people”) built public sympathy.
Legacy:
The U.S. transitioned from racial exclusion to controlled diversity, though tensions over enforcement and assimilation persisted. Cold War pragmatism and civil rights ideals were the biggest catalysts.
Givenrment policy was crucial in shaping the repsoen to immiragtion as republicans were more likely to restrict it, whereas liberals werre more accepting of multi-culturalism.
What was the social impact of the cinmea?
1920: 50m tickets werre sold a year, 1930 this was nearly 100m. Was by far the most popular form of mass entertainment, cheap and accessible, with cinema-goers going freqeuntly. Movie theatres wers a highly prifitable business due to this high level of demand. 90% of filsm were made in Hollywood in the 30s and the 40s.
Influence of Celebrities
* Clara Bow shapred fahion and consumerism of woemn, stariirign in prominent roles as a flapper , enticing woemn to have the same hair and clothes as her.
* Stars like Charlie Chaplin (The Kid, 1921) and Rudolph Valentino (The Sheik, 1921) became global icons, shaping early Hollywood’s glamour. Valentino was an itlian immigrant and showed the vitality of the american dream.
* The studio system (MGM, Warner Bros.) tightly controlled stars’ images (e.g., Greta Garbo, Clark Gable).
* MGM brokered a 500k dollar deal with cola for the starts to drink the drink durign interviews and in between shows, and therefore publicising the brand.
* Cinema tickets were the most bought item during the Great Depression
The Hyas code
* Eatablished during the 20s and 30s, regulatied films and forbade those which would lower the moral standards of their audiences. Movies conformed to the code or rsiked their movies not being published and proftied from.
* Movies not showing nudity, preventsion, rpesgancy of muscegenation
* It was revolked in 1966, films became more contrverisla and challenegs social norms. Such as whose coming to dinner 1967 depicted an itnerracial marrgaiuge.
- Key Movie Genres by Decade
1920s: Silent epics (The Birth of a Nation, 1915), slapstick comedy (The General, 1926).
1930s: Gangster films (Scarface, 1932), musicals (The Wizard of Oz, 1939), Disnety.
1940s: War propaganda (Casablanca), film noir (Double Indemnity, 1944).
1950s: Westerns (High Noon, 1952), sci-fi (The Day the Earth Stood Still, 1951), teen rebellion (Blackboard Jungle, 1955).
1960s: Epic dramas (Lawrence of Arabia, 1962), spy films (Goldfinger, 1964). The graduate.
1970s: New Hollywood grit (The Godfather, 1972), disaster films (Jaws, 1975), and anti-establishment cinema (Taxi Driver, 1976). Blockbusters
Cinesma began to focus on the quality rather than the quenitity o films produced, thereby limting the frequency of cinmagoers to wathc films. - Key Statistics
Movie Attendance Peaks & Dips:
1920s: 90 million weekly tickets sold (peak silent era).
1930s: 60–80 million weekly (Great Depression dip, rebounding with sound films).
1940s: 90 million weekly (wartime escapism).
1950s: Decline to 45 million (TV competition).
1970s: Blockbusters (Star Wars, 1977) revived theaters (100+ million tickets sold). - Impact of Other Popular Culture
Radio (1920s–40s): Competed with early talkies but also promoted films.
Television (1950s–60s): Stole audiences, forcing Hollywood to innovate (widescreen, Technicolor).
Music & Counterculture (1960s–70s): Films like Easy Rider (1969) merged rock soundtracks with anti-war themes.
The social impact of the radio
- Influence of Radio and Music Celebrities
Golden age iof the raidio durign the 30s and to early 50s. Radios could be bought cbheaply due to mass production, or through hire purchase
1917–1930s (The Rise of Radio & Jazz Age)
Radio Stars: Amos ’n’ Andy (comedy duo) became household names. In 1929 Pepsodent toothpaste sponsroed their show which had 40m listeners, and sales of the toothpaste skyrocketed.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s “Fireside Chats” (1930s) showcased radio’s political power. Bank Crisis (1933): After urging Americans to redeposit savings, banks saw $1 billion returned in days.
Woodstock (1969) and protest songs (“Blowin’ in the Wind”) fueled anti-war and civil rights activism.
Father Charles Coughlin’s Radio Sermons (1926–1940): The “Radio Priest”: Reached 30 million weekly listeners on CBS/NBC with fiery populist sermons. Whilst he initially supported FDR (“The New Deal is Christ’s Deal!”), his views became extremist, had 40m listernes and did infleunce FDR re-eelction. Legacy: Radio’s power to sway public opinion was proven—for both democracy and demagoguery. Modern parallels include podcast influencers and Twitter populists.
Music Icons:
20s: Louis Armstrong (jazz), Bessie Smith (blues), and Duke Ellington shaped the Harlem Renaissance. Jazz (Louis Armstrong – “West End Blues,” 1928), Blues (Bessie Smith), Country (Jimmie Rodgers).
30s: Swing music, band music, glebn miller,
1940s: (Golden Age of Radio & Birth of Rock ‘n’ Roll); V-dsics, frank sisnatra , parttiotism, big band music and jazz and pop music, wartime propganda
50s: Elvis Presley (1956 debut) and Chuck Berry revolutionized youth culture.
H G Wells’ War of the Worlds (1938) proved radio’s mass influence.
60s: the Beatles, Aretha Franklin, Jimi Hendrix, and The Rolling Stones mirrored civil rights and anti-war movements.
70s: funk music, glmrock, david bowier and freddie merucury challenegd the norms
- Key Statistics
Radio Ownership:
1920s: 50% of households had radios by 1930, listneed to it for 3.9 hours daily.
1940s: 90% penetration; peak influence during WWII.
1970s: FM overtakes AM in music listenership.
Advents of the TV in the 50s meant that people were only listening to the radio 24 minuteutes on average a day, radio does remain a constant but is by far nowehere as near the populaityy it once had
By 1945, 0.5 of all americans recieved their news on the radio, and ed murrow was highly infleuntial on the raido wheen reprotting the SWW on the front lines
The social and political infleunce of the television
TV became widespread commercial used in the 50s, fuelled by the post-war boom and greater consumerism and economic spending. 90% of households owned a TV by 1962, and this became 95% in 1970. TV dinners, national ads. 1967 PBS was creatd, and aired shows such as Sesame street which taught racial infclusivity and how to tead and count for little children.
Truman: Used TVs and flipcharts, but appeared awakward and unrelatable.
Eisenhower: He understodd the utility o fhte TV in elections, and woul dhold regualr tv conferences with the media informing them of his actions. he used clear imaegry such as the domino thery which made audeinces understand and appeal to him. He understood the improtantce of TV tio win elections, “We like Ike” election camapgisns layed on television. He wwnt on the fmaoud Ed Sullivan talk show, but admitted that the did not like going on television to appeal to voters.
- JFK and the Power of Image (1960)
First Televised Debate (1960): Kennedy’s charisma vs. Nixon’s sweat – radio listeners thought Nixon won, TV viewers favored JFK, proving TV’s visual power. Camelot Myth: TV glamorized the Kennedy family, linking politics to celebrity culture. aPresidents now chosen based ont heri visual appeal and perosnlisty, bnot jus tonly their policieis and skills. 70 million viewers. Of the 4 million viewers that used the eleciton to gauge their vote, 3 million voted for JFK. JFKs marginal vitocty of 118,000 votrs so it is not unreasonable to suggests that the TV debate won it for him. - Watergate Scandal (1972–1974): TV News Uncovered the Scandal: Woodward & Bernstein’s Washington Post reports were amplified by CBS News (Walter Cronkite) and Senate hearings (broadcast live). “I am not a crook” – Nixon’s televised denial backfired, eroding trust.TV turned Watergate into a national spectacle, forcing Nixon’s resignation (1974) and boosting investigative journalism. ALL 250 hours of the watergate hearings were played live, and this sepctacle unfolded live and direct, fuelling public conscousness of the scandal.
“CBS Reports: Vietnam in Perspective” (1968) – Walter Cronkite: After the Tet Offensive, Cronkite’s rare editorial declared the war “unwinnable.” LBJ’s reaction: “If I’ve lost Cronkite, I’ve lost Middle America.” TV shifted public opinion against Vietnam, proving its power to challenge government narratives. He also braodcasted th My lai massacre, shwong hwo the war was being fought both without honour and in a wasteful and cruel way.
- Rise of Investigative Journalism & News Media: 60 Minutes (1968): Pioneered TV exposés (e.g., corporate corruption, political scandals).
- Used a a tool for political humailition: The power of the telvision and the news media had to either enhance or undermine their presidents image. Ford was mericlessly portryed as clumsy and dumb, with his press secreatry mocking him falling over on SNL. This was due to the crisis in fconfidence and hsotility he inherited from watergate. Similaly, depsite beibng a moral humanitarian, so no scandal could be found by tghe media for Carter. Yet nonethleless the meida hyper-fixtated on his weakenesses and failureds, such as when he got attacked by a a rabbit duir ngng a fishing trip. This ocntrasted the way that the media took to FDR, who despite his polio disabiliuty, was not photgraphed in his wheelchair out of repsoect. When adminiastraiton handled things poorly the media withdrew their rpsectia dns uport.
s Ford repeatedly falls over while trying to approach the podium, mocking Ford’s real-life reputation for tripping
6 Ed Murrow and Mccarhtyism and the Red Scaresz: Became the presente dof see it now programme, in the 50s and denounced maccarthy as a liar and a bully, dispelling hmuch of his crieibility and infleunce.
1972 Survey conrkite was the most trusted man in the world.
Live and 24/7 news coverage on the civil rights protrsts, the moon landings and the cuban missile crisis,, having the ability to engage the publci directly with political affairs, political sitatire shwod increase t dthe political consciosucness of americsns.
Credibility gap post watergate facilitated the rise of investigative journalism, and the media and news media an telelvision took it upon themselves to invesitgate the failures of the govenrment.
Key Social Impacts:
Democratized Information: TV made politics accessible but also simplified complex issues.
Accountability: Watergate proved TV could topple presidents.
Visual Politics: Leaders now needed telegenic charm (JFK vs. Nixon).
Sensationalism: TV prioritized drama over depth (e.g., “if it bleeds, it leads”), rise of rumours, government consipiracies and fake news, or anchors pushing a political agenda.
