USA Boom And Bust Flashcards
1
Q
What did Hoover do with the banks to help relieve the depression?
A
-Hoover created the Reconstruction Finance Corporation. This was a massive U turn for Hoover and the Republican Party. This was the first direct attempt that the federal government was trying to get the US out of economic depression.
- The corporation was given 2 billion dollars to directly assist banks and insurance companies in financial trouble.
- 90% of RFC loans went to smaller, medium sized banks.
- The RFC did help 160 banks, 60 railway companies and 18 mortgage companies.
- However, it did not encourage banks to loan to businesses and there was not a severe change to stop economic downturn.
-However, FDR still used the RFC to combat the depression.
2
Q
What was the act that created numerous jobs in 1932 and what was its effect?
A
The Emergency Relief Act 1932
- Due to it being passed in 1932 it did not have the effect it should have had.
- It was given 1.5 Billion to give to state governments to fund public work schemes to employ people.
-There was a march on Washington by WWI veterans. 21,000 additional marchers joined and it lead to the army general needing to escort them.
- Hoover ordered the army to forcibly move them however lead to the loss of two lives. Was a major political blunder.
3
Q
What was the problem with FDR’s speeches leading up to the 1933 election?
A
-Appeared that FDR did not always appear to have clearly thought out how he would tackle the depression.
- He said he would create public work programs and increase relief for those suffering hardship however did not say how it would be funded.
-Was in favour of abolishing prohibition, fixing unemployment and helping pensions.
- In some speeches he attacked Hoover for spending too much yet he planned to spend even more.
4
Q
What was the result of the 1933 election?
A
-FDR gained an impressive victory and captured 22 million votes compared to Hoovers 15 million.
- In both houses, the Democrats achieved large majorities allowing them to pass legislation.
5
Q
What were the reasons for FDR’s landslide victory in the 1933 election?
A
-The depression was so bad, any alternative to Hoover would’ve been elected.
- He was ready to experiment with new ideas(Something Hoover never did)
- He projected confidence and optimism in his speeches that things would get better.
- His anti- prohibition stance was popular.
6
Q
What were the “Lame Duck Months?”
A
-This is the months between when FDR had not yet been inaugurated, so Hoover was still in office but with no power and a period of transition.
-Hoover was desperate to contain the depression and made a series of policy announcements in December before FDR’s inauguration.
- These policy’s completely failed and was merely a reason why the American people did not re-elect him.
7
Q
What did FDR say in his inauguration?
What points did he bring up and who did he blame for the depression?
A
-FDR painted a grim picture of the US at the time like mass unemployment and poverty.
-He said the people were not to blame. It was that the US was poorly governed and had mismanaged the economy.
- FDR asked for emergency powers to be granted so he could pass legislation unopposed for 100 days.
8
Q
The New deal- What was The Emergency Banking Act and when was it?
A
- FDR key priority was to restore faith in the banking system. He acted decisively as two days later he ordered a national bank holiday from 6-9 March.
- In that period he persuaded congress to pass the EBA, which it did in a record 7 hours.
- During the bank the US treasury investigated all the banks threatened with collapse and only those approved by the treasury would be allowed to reopen.
- Roosevelt’s first fireside chat explained to listeners simply, put your money back into banks for this to work.
- By April 1933, 1 Billion dollars had been returned to the banks, within a week of becoming president, FDR had effectively restored confidence in the US banking system.
9
Q
What was the Glass-Steagall Banking Act and when was it?
A
- June 1933
- Reformed the system by separating commercial from investment banking,this was a major cause for the crash.
- Also created the Federal Deposit insurance Corporation, which guaranteed all bank deposits to the value of $5000.
- Between them these two acts restore confidence and for the first time in 60 years, in 1936 no bank closed.
10
Q
What was the SEC and the Federal Securities Act and when was it?
A
- May 1933
- Another cause of the crash had been share speculation.
- Was to regulate the whole system of buying and selling share, all new share purchases had to be registered with the Federal Trade commission.
- SEC regulated all share transactions and stock exchanges across the US. -Made a famous arrest, corrupt banker Richard Whitney and showcased FDR breeding confidence into the banking system.
11
Q
What was The Gold Reserve Act and Silver Purchase Act and when were they?
A
- GRA was Jan 1934
- SPA was June 1934
- FDR attempted to bring currency stability through these 2 acts.
- The GRA devalued the US dollar against the rate of gold. He hoped this would make exports cheaper.
- The SPA hoped to raise prices by increasing the amount of silver in US coinage. Aim was to encourage more economic activity.
-Unfortunately neither revived US trade due to FDR thinking issues were domestic not international. Was purely focused on US and stunted international trade.
12
Q
Agriculture- What was the Tennessee Valley Authority and when was it?
A
- The Tennessee Valley committee was an are notorious for flooding, poor infrastructure and low standard of living and occupied 7 states.
- The TVA established a network of dams to control the flow of the river and create hydro-electric power.The percent of those with electricity in 1933 was 2% by 1945 it was 75%.
- Residents saw a 200% boost in their incomes due to the land now being fit for agriculture.
- Some critiques FDR for funding the whole thing and should’ve asked for help from states.
13
Q
What was The Agricultural Adjustment Administration(AAA) and when was it?
A
- June 1933
- Set to stabilise farm prices with a variety of methods.
- They introduced an allotment plan whereby, to prevent agricultural surpluses, farmers would reduce their acreage. Essentially the government would pay for farmers to decrease their production in order to stabilise production to increase prices.
- Farm incomes rose by 2 billion.
- Many black agricultures did not benefit and those in rural parts still went without electricity.
14
Q
What was the dust bowl?
A
- Climatic disaster of 1934 and 35 known as the dust bowl.
- The intense production in WWI had destroyed part of the land.
- Ten of thousands farm families were ruined and sought a new life into places like California.
- Between 1935-40 350,000 agricultural refugees arrived in California and received a hostile welcome.
- No new deal agencies were fit to deal with the issues they faced.
15
Q
What was The National Recovery Administration and when was it?
A
- 1933
- As part of the recovery plan, the NRA issued codes of practice for each industry. These codes were used to ensure good competition, fair wages and fair hours.
- The most significant part was Section 7(A) which allowed workers to collectively bargain for higher pay
- NRA had 3.3 billion to spend and businesses that adopted the NRA received a blue eagle sign which was the most recognisable symbol of the First New Deal.
- Issued over 500 codes of practice and many had been ineffective or not necessary leading to large businesses like Ford, not participating and it was declared unconstitutional in 1935.
- Overall, did not create fast economic recovery.
16
Q
What was the Public Works Administration and when was it created?
A
- 1933
- Lead by Harold Ickles, was a long term programme offering economic growth unlike other relief programs.
- Budget of 3.3 Billion.
- Ickles wanted to provide real, long term jobs and was responsible for building 13,000 schools and 50,000 miles of road.
- Ickles spent money smartly and had only spent 110 million.
- The three public work scheme agencies(PWA, CWA and FERA) employed 20% of the US workforce which was an astonishing achievement.
17
Q
What was the Civil Works Administration(CWA) and when was it?
A
-1933
- In the winter of 1933-34, millions of the unemployed faced hardship.
- Harry Hopkins was in charge and was a temporary public works relief programme to help in the winter months.
- Hopkins was given a budget of $400 million and employed 4.2 million workers in just 4 months. Built roads and airports.
- Biggest weakness was it was temporary however it did have huge success with improving infrastructure and definitely encouraged economic growth.
18
Q
What was The Federal Emergency Relief Administration and when was it?
A
- 1933
- Harry Hopkins in charge again.
- Budget of 500 million which was shared between states and was only to be used to provide relief for the unemployed. Half in direct payments and half in public work schemes. Resulted in 5,000 buildings being built.
- Republican states did not want to provide any public relief however Hopkins threatened to withdraw funds. This encouraged Republican states such as Georgia to take part in government intervention.
- Due to so many people against direct hand outs, FERA was limited.
19
Q
What was the Civilian Conservation Corps(CCC) and when was it?
A
- 1933
- FDR priority was to put the US back to work and employment amongst young people was a huge problem- they needed experience, skills and training.
- CCC programmes were supervised by the army and offered work mainly to men aged 18-25 which included mostly manual labour for 6 months to 2 years.
- It resulted in 250,000 off unemployment levels.
- Pay was $1 a day plus food and lodging which was segregated between blacks and whites.
- Lasted until 1942, employing 3 million young men and planting 3 billion trees, building many famous landmarks around the US.
20
Q
The Second New Deal- Why did FDR need the Second New Deal and when was it?
A
- 1935
- FDR said he needed to respond to radical opponents and was hoping to cut off their support lines by utilising ideas to suit his own political agenda.
- The General election 1936 was on the horizon and he wanted to ensure he remained in control and could control the new deal.
- Some argue FDR was simply introducing policies to combat the depression.
21
Q
What was The Works Progress Administration and when was it?
A
- 1935
- The WPA was a public works project and a major employer.
- It continuously had 2 million employees and employed 20% of workers through to 1941.
- Saw the construction of 1,000 airports, 8,000 schools and 12,000 playgrounds.
- Wages were $52 a day, the highest of any relief agency.
- Also provided relief for those in the arts like writers, artists could all access the WPA.
- The National Youth Administration(NYA) was also part of the WPA and encouraged full time education and part time jobs.
22
Q
What was The Wagner Act and when was it?
A
- 1935
- Seen as a milestone in trade union rights. Trade Unions were major supporters of the Democratic party.
- Initially, section 7A of the NIRA gave the ability to collectively bargain for wages however in 1925 the NIRA was declared unconstitutional , the Wagner Act gave that ability back.
- Finally, the government established the National Labour Relations Board, used to ensure both employers and trade unions acted correctly.
- However, did not include agricultural and minority groups.
23
Q
What was the Social Security Act and when was it?
A
- 1935
- Until 1935, the government did not possess a national government system for the elderly. This act seemed to be in response to political opponent Francis Townsend.
- Was the responsibility of the first female cabinet member, Francis Perkins who was Secretary of Labour.
-Was to be funded by equal contributions from employers and employees to help provide minimal funding to unemployed and elderly. - First person to receive a pension was Ida Fuller in 1940.
- Problems were it did not fund those who needed it most such as farmers.
24
Q
What was the Revenue Act and when was it?
What were the thoughts of the upper class?
A
- 1935
- Was introduced to help with the large amounts of spending done by FDR to help all the public work acts.
- Increased rate of income tax on the upper class from 63% to 79% which created an additional $250 million a year.
- Was seen as an act to tax the rich to fund the new deal but it did thwart the opposition on the left.
- Many called FDR a traitor to his class.
25
What was the help for farmers in 1935?
- The Resettlement Administration of 1935 helped relocate 45,000 farming families from areas like Texas and Oklahoma that were hit by the dust bowl.
- The Rural Electrification Administration gave low interest to help rural areas to provide electricity.
- By 1945, 40% of farmers had electricity, mainly as a result of the REA and helped solve problems of the 1st New deal.
26
FDR's opposition- What was the liberty league and when was it formed?
-1934
- Was a mix of FDR's enemies who opposed the new, active role of the federal government.
- Included old opposition in the Democratic party such as Al Smith and big businesses funded the liberty league due to the democratic party hindering business operations and regulations were tighter.
- Even though FDR radically saved the US from economic depression, the liberty league thought FDR was alienating US business which made the nation so great.
- Brought wide support for the Republicans in the 1936 election, Alfred Landon who received 11 million less than FDR.
- Revenue Act 1935 proved FDR was not scared in targeting big business owners.
27
Who was Upton Sinclair?
- Came up with a scheme whereby the unemployed would be put to work in state- run co-operatives.
- For a time, Sinclair's ideas gained credibility and proved useful for those opposed to FDR.
- Sinclair was the first to present an alternative to the New Deal from the left.
28
Who was Father Charles Coughlin?
- Roman Catholic priest who used radio effectively with over 35 million listeners nationwide on his weekly radio show, The Golden Hour for the Little Flower.
- By 1934, had formed a national union as an alternative to the First New deal.
- Coughlin wanted monetary reform, such as more silver coinage and a policy that encouraged inflation as he believed it would wipe out financial debt.
-Became obsessed with fascist leaders which lead to his decline.
29
Who was Francis Townsend?
- Radical voice that opposed FDR's policies.
- Supported the idea of state funded pensions as a way to stimulate demand in the economy.
- Under his plan, everyone over 60 would receive a federal pension of $200 per month.
- By 1935, over 500,000 had joined Townsend's clubs across the country.
- If FDR would've gone ahead with this it would've taken 51% of the federal budget and was simply not workable.
- FDR did introduce help for pensions in the Social Security Act so Townsend's support declined.
30
Who was Huey Long?
- Was a serious threat to FDR from his own party.
- In Feb 1934, Long launched his "Share our wealth" campaign against the First New Deal.
- Believed economic recovery would be stimulated if every US family received an annual income of $2000 and homestead allowance of 5000.
- The cost of this scheme would be implemented by raising taxes on the rich such as income and inheritance tax. By 1935, Long had 27,000 share our wealth clubs.
- Was not seen as going to win the election but could split the vote of the democratic party leading to FDR losing the presidency.
- However was assassinated in 1935, was FDR's most radical opponent advocating communist ideals and FDR's shift to the left may have been down to Long.
31
Why did FDR and the supreme court clash?
- Was bound to happen as the supreme court was dominated by Republicans who would naturally be against the New Deal.
-Also, he had 100 days in which he could introduce legislation unopposed so naturally the supreme court could now review and change this.
32
What were some examples of the supreme court and FDR clashing?
What was the Schechter case?
- In 1935, the supreme court named parts of the First New Deal unconstitutional such as the NIRA.
- In what became known as the Sick Chickens case, the court declared the federal government had exceeded its power by trying to regulate commerce in New York.
- Schechter Brothers had been fined highly by the NRA and left them bankrupt for freezing chicken longer than allowed even though they displayed the NRA blue eagle sign.
- Liberty league gave the brothers financial backing to take the NRA to the supreme court for involving themselves in state issues, the Supreme court sided with the brothers and wiped out the NRA.
33
What was the outcomes of the Supreme court on The First New Deal and FDR?
- Had almost completely destroyed the First New Deal by 1936 declaring 11 first new deals illegal.
- In the previous 140 years, 60 cases had been ruled down showing the massive scale of opposition to the First New Deal and had made the reform,recovery and relief impossible.
- Were the only opponents with the power to stop FDR and make change.
34
What was FDR's response to the setbacks made by the Supreme Court? What was the bill he tried to pass?
- The biggest setback FDR faced was his attempt to change the composition of the US supreme court.
- In 1937, he submitted a bill known as the Judicial Procedures Reform bill to Congress.The aim was that all supreme court justices would be forced to retire aged 70 and wanted the number of supreme court justices increased from 9 to 15.
- If passed, this would have given FDR extreme power.
- However, this led to massive criticisms in the press on congress and FDR's popularity declined significantly.
- The move was an unusual one and showed FDR's frustration and desire to change the US constitutional system in dictatorial fashion and for the first time many challenged his decisions and felt he was using his power in the wrong way.
35
What were the outcomes of FDR and the supreme court?
- Fortunately for FDR, the supreme court began to allow progressive legislation to become law.
- First was to allow the minimum wage act in 1937.
- Upheld the Wagner Act
- Later one of the more conservative justices retired and FDR could appoint his replacement.
- After 1937, the US supreme court no longer acted as a major opponent against the New Neal and FDR but in the process FDR had lost considerable support within congress.
36
What was the state of the US economy 1945-55?
- The economy was prospering due to the continued expansion and the increasing and changing employment opportunities for many Americans.
- All of these changes were fuelled by advertising and the budget for advertising increased by 1000%.
37
Why was there increased employment opportunities in aircraft and shipping?
- Due to the development of aircraft and shipping being continued during peace time due to fears of the cold war.
- The USA remained a place of military preparedness in the anticipation of a global conflict with the USSR.
- Events such as the Berlin Airlift meant government expenditure remained high and demand for military material remained high keeping these industries buoyant.
38
What were the effects of the growth of disposable income on cars and job opportunities?
- This sustained domestic demand- demand for cars was a massive indicator.
- In 1945, car production was at 2 million, by 1955 it was over 8 million.
- This meant new job opportunities were created for skilled employment with higher wages.
- The growth of clerical work led to more opportunities for women who were under-represented in manufacturing jobs.
- Companies such as Ford motors went worldwide leading to more demand for oil.
39
What were the effects of the growth of the retail sector?
- In 1945, there were only 8 shopping centres. By 1960, there were almost 4000.
- The sector offered thousands of employment opportunities for low to semi-skilled workers, increasing disposable income.
- The new shopping centres sold televisions and many labour saving devices such as toasters and fridges.
- Retail sectors were heavy on advertising with advertising expenditure expanding by 1000%.
40
Why was there a growth in the aircraft industry and what was the effect on railways?
- With the development of the jet engine and 707 new US planes civilians were now using and buying planes which had previously only been bought by the US military.
- This led to a decrease in necessity and importance for railways and greatly increased air travel by 1952.
41
What were the effects of technological advances in computing?
- Led to jobs in computing-in 1944 Harvard and IBM produced the first general purpose computer.
42
What was the effect of the massive growth of the US economy on types of jobs?
- By 1956, there was now more white collar jobs than blue collar. However, it must be noted that employment opportunities favoured white men.
43
What were some government policies used to stimulate growth in the 1950s?
- Through an increase in defence spending, supporting the industries that helped the US in WWII. This sparked technological breakthrough such as nuclear physics which increased productivity and efficiency.
- After 1945, the government sold many of its industrial facilities
44
Why were the negatives of the new deal?
- FDR was a deficit spender who believed in Keynesian economic theory.
- New Deal aimed for economic relief yet unemployment never fell below 14%-9.5 million Americans.
- FDR's decision to focus on domestic solutions which negatively affected US exports leading to long term economic issues and decrease global expansion.
- PWA offered useless jobs with jobs offering little economic benefit such as pigeon chasing.
- The combined US personal income had fell by 10 billion to 72 billion by 1939.
- The Roosevelt recession 1937-38 over a 10 month period where exports fell by 33% and 4 million people lost their jobs.
45
What were the successes of the New Deal?
- People remarked FDR had "American capitalism was saved in eight days" following The Emergency Banking Act 1933. The regulation of the stock exchange bred confidence into Wall street and by April 1 billion had been returned to the banks due to FDR's fireside chats.
- Glass-Steagall Act rectified the banking system.
- The TVA rectified the farmers and benefited several states as they brought electricity to 75% of farmers by 1945.
- The PWA stopped useless jobs in the economy and offered useful jobs.
- CWA laid 12 million feet of sewer pipe and 250,000 miles of road.
- States who previously refused state funding or relief were now forced to do so .
-CCC was incredibly successful in keeping young men useful and at work.
- WPA also put 8 million people to work even those in the arts and culture.
46
What did FDR do to the role of the state to transform it for future political parties?
Why did the Democrats dominate US politics for a decade after FDR?
Why was FDR so popular and what did he do what no president had ever done in terms of the staff?
- FDR dramatically increased the role of the state and practically were involved in every American's lives.
- Democrats dominated US politics due to FDR's massive success and transformation of the US and also the widespread support of minority groups and blue collared workers.
- FDR's fireside chats, delivered to the public by radio helped build a bond between FDR and the public and created a caretaker image for himself. He had a likeable quality and great leadership and his wife Elanor transformed the role of the first lady.
- FDR was the first president to have a white house staff around him committed to solving international and domestic issues.
47
What was the legacy of the new deal?
What was the acts that positively effected farm life and what did he do with power companies.
- Had a massively positive effect on infrastructure such as the CCC building many national parks and the WPA building 570,000 miles of road and 2500 hospitals.
- The TVA gave electricity to 90% of farmers by 1950, transformed areas in Tennessee with poor land and uneconomical areas.Built dams and rivers to create hydro electric power and transformed rural areas.
- 1935 Rural Electrification Administration- Persuaded private power companies to expand their power lines to farm areas and offered low-interest to make it happen. Established non for profit organisations to finish the work the private firms did not finish.
- Acreage only grew from 1 billion to 1.05 billion by 1939.
48
How many women did FDR employ in his cabinet, and who were some significant figures and what were their effects?
- Named 23 women in his cabinet that had previously been held by men, he treated them as he would any male colleague.
- Francis Perkins, secretary of labour was the most significant ticked off a number of goals such as minimum wage, maximum workweek,old age pensions and unemployment insurance. It was am extremely ambitious plan however Perkins achieved it.
- Molly Dewson was valuable in achieving votes and rounding them up, and was especially effective in achieving the female vote.
49
Who was Mary McLeod Bethune?
- Was director of Negro affairs and successfully pressed for inclusion of black youth in the new deal and developed a close relationship with the first lady, inspiring her to increasingly bold actions in civil rights.
50
Who was Eleanor Roosevelt and why was she so significant?
- Was the first lady and was one of the top 10 most powerful people in Washington.
- ER radically changed the role of the first lady as she became a powerful speaker and sometimes even rivalled her husband's views.
51
What were the limitations with women in the workplace and what was an act that benefited women from the New Deal?
- Many women now had to work due to the depression and the husband could not solely support the family.
- The New Deal recognised this however there was a bias towards male workers so faced opposition.
- The NRA for example prompted minimum wage and maximum workweek regulations, other businesses used different codes for women which exploited them. The codes also did not support women in agriculture.
- Struggle over Social security led by Perkins to help aid the unemployed, mothers, the elderly but when it was passed to Southern Democrats, they wanted farm workers and domestics excluded.
- Wagner Act 1935 guaranteed workers of each sex with the right to organise trade union rights.
52
What were the positives and negatives of relief for unemployed women in the 1930s?
- Unemployment relief for women was not really a concern for the government and were actually part of the problem as they took jobs off unemployed male breadwinners, especially married women were urged to leave the workplace.
- Women were treated unequally in The New Deal. Such as the CCC, which employed urban men who could live in government funded housing, excluded women.
- Women fared much better under the WPA as Ellen Woodward oversaw non-construction projects and helped as many unemployed women as possible. Within months, 200,000 women were employed in sewing factories to make bedding items for the needy. The WPA sent higher skilled women to schools to teach and other adult education programs. WPA spent 12% of its budget on women and hired 372,000 women.
53
What were the positive and negative effects of The New Deal on Black american women?
Who was a key figure in American Black women's rights developing?
- Black American women suffered disproportionately in the Depression. More than half lost their jobs and although the new deal offered relief, it helped black american women the least.
- Southern Democrats controlled the legislative process in congress, meaning Jim Crow segregationists were in charge of New Deal programmes across the South, leading to less help for black women.
- In 1935, Anti-New Dealers and New Deal Republicans came together to exclude farm workers and domestics from New Deal relief, which excluded 90% of black women from coverage.
- WPA did help as they did provide work to women in the arts and teachers leading to some income for them.
- Mary McLeod Bethune's oversight of the NYA ensured black women would benefit from work programmes that helped them stay in school.
- Bethune's close relationship with Elanor Roosevelt led to black women having a powerful ally.
54
What was the effect of The New Deal on Native Americans?
What was the state of NA's before?
What was the act for NA's and what was its effect?
- Native Americans land was under threat as only 1/3 of their land had been kept since 1887. White settlers were attracted to their land due to the high levels of oil discovered on the land. Were moved to poor lands such as South Dakota which was known for its poor agricultural land and the quality of life for Native Americans fell sharply due to disease, poverty and drunkenness
- NA issues at federal level were handled by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, which was poorly funded with a lack of concern.
- However in 1934, The Indian Reorganisation Act which replaced the Dawes Severalty Act and offered radical change. For the first time, efforts were made to preserve NA culture. They had their own legal system, enforced by their own police system for example they banned consumption of alcohol in some preserves even though prohibition had been abandoned.
- Overall, the Native American Reorganisation Act did not really further the Native Americans in the economy, did little on the whole.
-
55
What were the effects of The New Deal on Hispanic Americans?
What was the current state of Hispanic workers?
What was the effect of the depression on Hispanics?
What were the negatives of The New Deal on Hispanics?
- Hispanics were predominantly in the agriculture business, harvesting crops and predominantly from Mexico.
- When the depression struck, many workers were deported and the number of Mexican-American workers dropped from 600,000 in 1930 to 400,000 in 1940. Those who stayed in the US had their wages slashed ( 35 cents an hour to 14 cents an hour in 1933 in California). Hispanic workers like many other workers worked in cramped, unsanitary, temporary conditions.
- Like Black Americans, they were excluded from most of New Deal legislation benefits. Such as Section 7 of the National Industrial Recovery Act 1933 which allowed workers to bargain for better wages and conditions, minorities were excluded. It was the same for the Wagner Act 1935.
- In other ways, The New Deal actually made life worse for Hispanics, such as the AAA reducing farm production, meaning there was less need for workers
56
What was the effect of Black Americans on the war effort?
What was the act that stopped discrimination in training?
How many Black Americans were in the army by 1945?
- By 1941, there was only 4,000 black Americans in the armed forces and only 12 officers, showing the level of discrimination against the group
The situation improved when:
- FDR pledged African Americans would be recruited due to their % in the population
- The Selective Training Act 1941 outlawed discrimination during training.
- By 1945, there was 1.2 million black Americans in the army. The 332nd fighter group became national heroes, not losing a single bomber when escorting them.
- Widespread wartime production saw over 300,000 African Americans find employment but faced discrimination in the workplace.
- The migration of 5 million African Americans to rural areas led to race riots in 1943 such as the riots in Detroit saw 25 blacks dead. There was a housing shortage and debates on whether black or white Americans should be prioritised first. FDR had to send troops to stop the rioting which took 6 months to restore order.
57
What were public attitudes on communism and a red scare?
What events affected this?
What did Truman do to help stop fears?
- Fears of communist spying and subversion were exacerbated by several events. In 1945, hundreds of secret state department documents were found in a communist magazine. The following year, Canadian state employee were discovered to be leaking atomic secrets over to Soviet spies. By 1949, the SS had become the 2nd country to create its own atomic bomb after the US, spoiling fears that communists had infiltrated the US and caused fear in society.
- In 1947, Truman introduced loyalty tests which examined all employees on there background. Led to 3000 employees leaving and 300 dismissed.
58
What was The House Un-American Activities Committee, when was it created and what was its effect?
What act aided its passage?
- Was originally used in 1938 to investigate for Nazi spies but after the war switched to communist subversion.
- Smith Act 1940- Gave the right to arrest anyone who supported or promoted communist ideals.
- Truman helped to foster an anti communist attitude and made a speech that the Soviet’s threatened democracy and the free world. Helped with passing The Marshall Plan(Financial support to those threatened with communism)
- HUAC investigated communist infiltration across the country, attempted to expose communist supporters in the federal government.
59
What was the effect of the HUAC on the public and what was its most famous case?
- The HUAC witch hunts were broadcasted on TV, with many following it.
-The Republicans believed Truman should have done more to bring down communism.
- Most famous case was a state department official, Alger Hiss who was accused of communist sympathies. He was accused of giving secret documents to a self confessed Communist, Chambers.
- The HUAC increased national hysteria against communist and created massive tensions in society.
60
Who was Joseph McCarthy?
- Senator McCarthy is the person most closely associated with the second red scare.
- In Feb 1950, he announced that the State Department had been infiltrated by communists.
- He did this as he said the attention and intrigue of anti-communism and wanted to exploit it for his own political desires.
61
Who did McCarthy go after?
Did McCarthy gain popularity and who by?
What was the effect politically of McCarthy’s dramatised fears?
- Went to attack several government departments such as The American Bar Association and teaching professions.
- Mccarthy tactics seemed to have worked with two anti-McCarthy senators losing their seats and big gains for the Republicans.
- He offered simple answers to what millions of Americans were asking and gained support of the Catholics who believed the USSR were a threat to religion, and also businessmen who were scared of communism so McCarthy gained support in Midwest and West.
- Was due to HUAC and McCarthy that spiked communist fears and was the formula for Republican vote.
62
What Act was passed to investigate communist and when was it?
What act was upheld?
What were the Democrats view on the activities of HUAC and McCarthy?
What was the effect of McCarthy on the Republicans?
In 1950, The McCarren Act was passed that required all communists in the US to be investigated and empowered the government as they could suspect anyone who questioned the governments authority.
- The Democrats however thought this legislation attacked the American way of life(freedom) which damaged the Democrats reputation and Truman was heavily critical.
- In 1951, the Smith Act 1940 was withheld and led to the arrest of 11 top communists.
- Mccarthys attacks led to weakened morale in the federal government and was a climate on fear with those challenging American life.
- McCarthy continued to pay dividends for the Republican Party and won them their first general election in 20 years in 1952
63
What led to McCarthy’s downfall?
- McCarthy kept making claims-even about the armed forces, which was embarrassing for Eisenhowers administration.
- US Senate became increasingly irritated with McCarthy’s actions and behaviour and he was known to be a heavy drinker and considered an embarrassment to the senate.
- McCarthy had dominated the national scene for 5 years with accusations which undermined the government, teaching profession and several governing bodies.
64
What was The Nuclear Age?
- At the end of WWII the US saw itself as the world’s largest power and possessed nuclear weapons.
- From 1941-1991 the US and USSR threatened each other with nuclear weapons and for the first time US territory was under threat of nuclear weapons.
- Threat led to growing fear of the US position and the main worry was how the USSR had come up with the nuclear weapon so quickly, spiking fears of Soviet spies.
- Schools were taught precautions of Soviet attacks.
65
What was The Rosenberg Case and when?
- 1953
- Ethel and Julius Rosenberg were found to have passed nuclear weapon secrets to the Soviets.
- Both have been former members of the American Communist Party.
- Most of the time evidence found was circumstantial but the Rosenbergs claimed they were singled out because they were Jewish.
- Rosenbergs appealed believing they did not have a fair trial however the anti-Communist feeling denied it and they were sentenced to death and their executions received popular support and all newspapers were in agreement except the communist papers.
- Rosenberg case confirmed the belief that the threat came from within but Rosenberg was obviously guilty.
66
What alphabet agencies and acts were in the First New Deal?
- CCC
- Emergency banking Act 1933, Glass Steagall
- Gold reserve Act and Silver Purchase Act 1934
- Tennessee Valley Authority
- AAA
- NRA
- PWA
- CWA
- FERA
67
What were the alphabet agencies and acts in The Second New Deal?
- WPA
- The Wagner Act
- The Social Security Act
- The Revenue Act
- Rural Electrification Administration
68
What was the state of the US economy after the war and what fuelled this?
- The post-war boom was greatly aided by the growth of the car industry as production quadrupled between 1946-55. In 1950 the US produced 2/3 of all the world's cars and trucks.
- Led to the massive growth of the suburbs as it aided domestic tourism and Americans could now drive to other parts of the country.
69
What was the main item purchased on credit and what was the effect of the massive growth of spending on credit?
- Led to the first ever credit card by the Diners club in 1950.
- Was mainly due to cars as they were the most purchased item on credit.
- Short term credit rose from $8.4 billion in 1946 to $45.6 in 1958.
- Demand for cars were increased due to clever advertising and manufacturers innovating new models and designs.
- Car production was also aided by federal construction of highways as federal spending went from $79 million to $2.6 billion by 1960.
70
What was the impact of the Fair Employment Practices Commission(FEPC) and when was it introduced?
Why was it introduced?
When was it discontinued?
- Due to prejudices they felt at home, black Americans threated a march on Washington in 1941.
- FDR introduced the FEPC with his executive order to bring fair employment practices which outlawed discrimination in the defence industry. This meant anybody with a government contract had to comply.
- This resulted in an increase of 5% of African Americans in the defence factories.
- The FEPC eventually expanded to women and had an increased budget of 500%.
- FEPC was declared unconstitutional by congress with failed attempts to bring it back in 1946 and 1948.
71
What was the changing status of women during wartime?
What act helped working women?
- The war significantly affected the role and status of women.
- Many faced problems of trying to juggle childcare with long wartime working hours and to combat this introduced the Community Facilities Act 1941.
- The act sought to find childcare facilities for working women.
- However, there was a massive housing shortage and meant that families that lived in urban areas lived in cramped conditions.
- Alongside this, women faced a shortage of materials on the home front where they had to grow their own produce.
72
How many Native Americans were in the armed forces and why were they useful?
- Was an estimated 25,000 Native Americans in the armed forces.
- In the pacific, Navajos were employed to transmit messages in their own language so the Japanese could not de code messages due to its complex nature.
-
73
What was the effect of the war on employment for Hispanic Americans in the armed forces and at home?
How many went in the military and on shipyards?
What were the issues at home?
- Hispanic Americans(Like many ethnic groups) found employment easily.
- Around 500,000 joined the military and another 17,000 in shipyards who had employed no minorities before 1941.
- Hispanics were associated with criminality and immorality which lead to riots between Mexican gangs and naval crews.
- The Hispanics were blamed for the violence and chaos rather than the navy which reflected the racist attitudes.
- Elanor Roosevelt wrote a letter to support the Mexican gangs and it was actually the naval crews that caused the violence.
74
What was the establishment set up for propaganda, what was its effect and when was it?
- Helped the US gain popularity for the war and portray the full idea of the enemy.
- In 1942, the government created an Office of War Information who coordinated propaganda across the US in public places like railway stations.
- To encourage women, the war office created Rosie the Riveter and had slogans such as "Women power" and had anti-gossiping posters with slogans such as "loose lips lose ships".
- National War Bond campaigns spread across the US which was an effective way to fund the war.
75
How did the government use Hollywood as a propaganda tool?
How did Hollywood staff contribute?
- US possessed a powerful propaganda tool in Hollywood
- Us government fuelled pro-British films such as Gary Cooper winning the Best Actor Oscar which was a British soldiers against the Germans.
- Several Hollywood actors joined the army such as Clark Gable joining the air force. 12 % of actors and 25% of all Hollywood staff joined.
- Disney created several animated characters in Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck in marines and red cross uniforms. Disney encouraged a campaign for Americans to grow their own food.
76
What was the effect of the radio on propaganda?
What percentage of Americans had access to the radio?
Why was it so successful?
- FDR had shown the power of radio through his fireside chats.
- Almost 90% of Americans had access to the radio.
- Advertising and broadcasting on the radio was a major step in bringing war propaganda to a level where people could be touched nationally.
- In 1942 radio stations broadcasted a series of talks such as "You can't do business with Hitler"
- The US treasury sponsored many radio shows to raise awareness of war bonds.
- Many Americans were not aware of the mass propaganda plan by the government and radio stations, so they were highly persuasive.
77
Why was music a big factor in propaganda?
- Swing was the most popular wartime music.
- Defence bodies begun to recruit military bands to travel both around the USA but also the visit soldiers on the front.
- Band leader Glenn Miller travelled the US during the war but died via plane crash travelling to an event.
- American troops could access radio so therefore knew a lot of songs.
- The government used music in order to raise morale by doing this with also regular mail and decent food.
78
How many women were in the armed forces and what was their contribution?
What were the downsides for women in the workplace?
How many people were in The American Red Cross and how did they contribute?
- 100,000 women served in the army in the Women Army Corps and 350,000 overall.
- The greatest contribution however was the workforce. 6 million women entered the workplace for the first time and by the end of the war over 18 million women had worked at some point.
- Women helped in clerical work but also in male dominated fields such as welding and repairing tanks.
- 200,000 women were permanently disabled and 37,000 died by their work in explosive factories and were also paid less and still expected to still be homemakers.
- 20 million members in the American Red Cross which helped build furniture, clothing and helping at military camps.
79
What was the effect of growing trade unions?
How much did membership grow throughout?
What union took strike?
- The growth of trade unions was felt throughout FDR's legislation in the 1930s and NRA had given them the right to collectively bargain under section 7(A)
- Membership grew from 11% of the workforce in 1935 and by 1940 it was 27% of the workforce and by the end of the war it was 36% of the workforce.
- During the war, most unions agreed to the "no strike" rule. The United Mine Workers of America(UMWA) attempted to raise coal miners wages however faced opposition from The War Labour Board.
80
What was the effect of growth of migration to urban and industrial centres?
How many black Americans moved North?
What was the effect on large cities?
- When millions of Americans joined the military, they moved to bases away from home and 15 million Americans moved away permanently as a result of the war.
- 700,000 Black Americans moved north to places such as New York and Chicago.
- Many used war as a way to escape rural poverty.
- Whole cities had grown around newly developed specific war industries such as Kansas which was associated with aircraft production.
81
How did the war help new industries develop and what project helped create a significant development in war?
- A drive to win the war helped new industries develop with the most innovative was the creation of the first atomic weapon.
- This was known as The Manhattan Project which cost over $2 billion employing top scientists and 100,000 others.
- The nuclear industry became important to the defence industry with the cold war raging on.
- Technological advances in ship building meant that they could be built in days. Over 5,000 ships were built at a cost of 13 billion.
- These war industries stimulated the development of electronics, radio communications and new methods of construction and weaponry.
82
What encouraged the US consumer society and what were the positives and drawbacks of this?
- By 1955, the US had become the first consumer society. Suburban housing developments, cars, TVs and easy consumer credit lifted this.
- During the 1950s, the average family in Suburbia earned 70% than the rest of the country.
- Cars had led to greater mobility that led to drive in restaurants as McDonalds was created in 1954.
- Despite this, nearly 40 million Americans(22% of the population) lived below the poverty line and the inner cities that had been left by the middle classes fell into economic decline and associated with crime and poverty.
83
What led to the growth of the suburbs?
What were the Levittown projects and what were the drawbacks of it?
How many people did it house and in what year?
- Rapid car growth which led to greater mobility and housing developments.
- Number of people living in suburbs increased by 10% in 1950s and the suburban houses doubled to 18 million.
- William Levitt fuelled suburban development. In 1947 he bought 1200 acres of land and built over 10,000 homes which were quickly occupied by over 40,000 people.
- He reduced costs of housing by using prefabricated materials which could be made quickly on site. Were originally sold for $6990.
- However, Levitt made sure he only sold to whites and by 1952 their was over 70,000 people in a community with no black people. This segregation was declared illegal by 1960.
84
What was the Hollywood ten?
What were the consequences of them not co-operating with the HUAC?
How did they protest?
- Hollywood was investigated heavily by the HUAC. 10 Hollywood screenwriters refused to co-operate with the HUAC which led to a $1000 fine and 1 year in prison.
- Eventually, one of them(Edward Dmytryk) gave in 20 names who were believed to be Communist.
- The Hollywood ten split the US and investigated famous celebrities like Frank Sinatra. They formed the Committee for the First Amendment which campaigned for free speech and disliked HUAC tactic of expecting to know named communists.
85
What were the impacts of the Hollywood ten and the HUAC?
- Originally, the US people were on the actors side however when they refused to answer questions suspicion started to raise.
- Of more long term significance there was a "blacklist" of Hollywood actors that should not be employed. Blacklisted actors were forced to work overseas.
- In 1953, controversially Arthur Miller made a film on the witch hunts which criticised the actions of the HUAC.
- The effect of HUAC investigations led to the end of many careers but also Hollywood shows not tackling anything controversial in film.
86
What was the effect of rising power of television?
How did this effect other forms of entertainment?
- By 1955, over 76% of Americans owned a television. For the first time, poorer people could experience high quality shows entertainment and sports that had been reserved previously for upper and middle classes.
- The 1960 TV guide outsold all magazines and it also changed eating habits as the first "TV dinner" was created.
- It also became massive for advertising as it became one of the leading ways with ad breaks.
- It also had an effect on those attending cinemas as weekly attendance dropped from 90 million in 1946 to 47 million in 1956.
87
What did television allow for working-classes?
What were the three broadcasters that dominated TV?
What were some popular sitcoms?
- Television allowed millions to see top-level sporting events such as the World Series in 1947.
- Television was dominated by three national networks. ABC,NBC and CBS.
- Some of the most popular shows transferred to television from radio such as "The Goldbergs" based on working-class Jewish family. "Father knows best" was made in response to growth of suburbia but conformed with all societal expectations with no political views and a subservient wife.
- Most popular was "I love Lucy", when Lucy had a baby nearly 70% of TV sets were tuned in.
88
What was the portrayal of ethnic minorities and women and in what shows?
When was the first lead role for a Black American in a popular TV show and who was it?
What was the effect of TV on topical subjects and why was it criticised?
- Women like Mrs Anderson on "father knows best" was a subordinate, loyal partner which conformed to 1950s US society.
- Ethnic minorities were always presented in servile roles, such as domestic servants. The Jack Benny show, the main character Jack always had a black servant with him.
- It wasn't under Bill Cosby in 1965 did a ethnic minority have a leading role in a popular TV series.
- Some TV shows did debate topical issues such as McCarthyism. "See it now" was the beginning of the end for McCarthyism.
- TV was often criticised for being "low brow" and contributing to low scores for students.
89
How did the growth of teenager power come about in the 1950s?
- The rebellious youth was associated with the flapper which was frowned on by adults. However, in the 1950s it saw the rise of the teenager.
- Not only were teenagers more rebellious but they had money to buy due to the post-war economic boom.
- They were given much more freedom as the depression had been a tough time for parents.
- Teenagers benefitted from the availability of cars and fast food.
- Businesses saw opportunity and developed teenager fashion.
- The main thing was they were associated with "rock and roll" which was looked down on by traditional adults.
- Television programming of films helped develop the new idea of the teenager with Marlon Brando in the 1953 film "The wild one". Teenagers were often portrayed as violent delinquents.
90
What was the response to the growing power and change of teenagers in the 1950s?
- Margaret Mead claimed that growing disrespect to teachers was due to the rapid societal change where young people saw education as irrelevant.
- Alfred Kinsey published "Sexual Behaviour in the Human Male" in 1948 and Sexual Behaviour in the Human Female" in 1953 and his findings was that 95% of males were sexually active by 15, with similar findings with females.
- By 1955, 13 states passed laws regulating the contents of magazines to prevent sexual and overt behaviour.
91
When did Rock n Roll first find its fame?
What were some songs?
Who brought Rock n Roll to new heights and how?
- The origins of rock n roll was African-American from the Old South.
- The first time it received media attention was in 1952 on a new programme called Moondog's rock n roll party.
- It was so popular that the show moved to NYC in 1954 to make rock n roll a national craze.
- Chuck Berry "Johnny B. Goode" in 1954.
- Even though the origins of rock n roll came from African Americans it only took off when performed by white singers.
- It was Elvis that gave rock n roll its fame. His seductive dance moves, good looks and powerful voice propelled him to mass fame. In 1955, he had his first number one song, "Heartbreak hotel" and rock n roll had found its teenage idol.
92
Was it Truman's intent to improve civil rights at the start?
What orders did Truman bring in to improve civil rights and how did this affect votes for African Americans?
Was Truman successful?
- At the start of his presidency, Truman looked as if he did not prioritise civil rights as he was vice president and a former slave state minister to please white voters.
- However, in 1948 he brought Executive Order 9981, which brought an end to segregation in the armed forces.
- This was partly due to the pressures of the 1948 election as the Republicans posed a serious threat as the Democrats were splitting.
- Executive Order 9981 was seen by some as a cynical attempt to gain African American votes- in which he did gaining 2/3 of their votes.
- It allowed civil rights groups such as the NAACP to publicise their views.
- In Executive Order 9980 Truman created the Fair Employment Board which advocated equal treatment in hiring.
- Truman did show attempts to improve civil rights but due to rival from other states reserve forces were still segregated.
93
What was the status of African Americans in sport?
Who were some figures and what was their experience.
- Black Americans have been prominent in professional sport before 1945 but was because of their superior talent rather than racial equality.
- Boxers such as Sugar Ray Robinson and Joe Louis were dominant.
- Jesse Owens won the long-jump in 1936 however was snubbed by the White House.
- Jackie Robinson was the first Black American to participate in MLB. He faced considerable prejudice but became one of the most iconic figures in baseball and even retired his number, 42.
94
How did African Americans face prejudice in the entertainment industry?
- Black Americans tended to only be in supporting roles in menial positions.
- The first black American to win an Oscar was Hattie McDaniel in 1939 who played a domestic servant.
- In music, Nat King Cole became a popular ballad singer but found it difficult to tour in the Old South.
- Chuck Berry and Little Richard became national heroes.
95
What was the National Association for the advancement of Coloured People(NAACP)?
What was an early victory for NAACP?
What did NAACP membership grow to during WWII?
What was the NAACP's greatest achievement?
What development did Thurgood Marshall have?
- Was set up in 1909 by white liberalists and African Americans aiming for better rights and equality.
- An early victory for the NAACP was preventing Hoover in 1930 appointing segregationist John Parker.
- The NAACP's membership rapidly grew from 50,000 to 450,000.
- In 1941, the NAACP worked with other organisations such as Trade Union bodies.
- The greatest achievement was in 1954 where the Jim Crow laws were declared unconstitutional.
- The Brown case that made interracial education legal was key and Thurgood Marshall became the first Black American Justice on the US supreme court in the. 1960s.
96
What was the extent of change in civil rights by 1955?
- The modern civil rights movement had begun with the victory of Brown VS Board case however changes were little.
- By 1955, virtually every previously segregated school was still segregated and so was public transport and toilets.
- Black Americans in the South were still treated as second-class citizens and discriminated in housing and employment.
97
What was the opposition to improvements in civil rights in 1955?
- The "Southern Manifesto" was created which declared the Brown case was an abuse of judicial power and had 100 congressmen sign.
- Across the South White Citizens Councils were created to keep legal segregation and by 1956 not one school in the deep south was integrated.
98
What was the Montgomery Bus Boycott and when was it?
What was the other organisation as well as the NAACP protesting for equality?
- 1955
- Rosa Parks arrest of not giving up her seat led to this.
- Black Americans refused to use public transport until it was desegrated and in 1956 they got it.
- The boycott also brought prominence to Martin Luther King who went onto the Civil Rights Movement.
- The NAACP was the only organisation. Congress of Racial Equality was created in a non-violent campaign to achieve full racial equality which played an important role in the 1960s.
99
What was the extent of improvement for Black Americans, Hispanics and Native Americans during 1940s and 50s?
What was ultimately the supporting and hindering factors of improvement for minorities?
- Black Americans still suffered discrimination in housing and employment.
- Many lived in ghettos and the poll tax was still in place. Intimidation by the KKK meant African-Americans still remained as second-class citizens.
- Hispanic Americans saw little improvement. The agricultural boom saw some improvements however the Eisenhower administration deported 3 million back. 1/3 lived below the poverty line.
- The position of Native Americans were mixed.
- More than 500,000 acres were given to non natives through the House concurrent Resolution.
- In 1955, the USA was on the cusp of a great awakening by minorities into an organised campaign for equality. They were aided by the activist Supreme Court but faced resistance to those in the South, politicians in congress and state governments that did not want to see change.
