US Democracy and Participation

Question 1

Presidential Election (x3)

Answer 1

Laid out in Article 2 of the US Constitution

Electoral college can be FAITHLESS ELECTORS, but despite 7 FAITHLESS ELECTORS in 2016, FAITHLESS ELECTORS have never changed the results on an election

Apart from 2000,2016 and 2020, the US election system works without controversy

Question 2

Reform of the Electoral College (x4)

Answer 2

Direct proportional election (this would require a constitutional amendment however, so would be unlikely to occur)

The National Popular Vote has electoral college voters vote according to the national vote of the country

The Maine System is when candidates win proportional ECVs from a state rather than winner-takes-all

The Automatic Plan abolished FAITHLESS ELECTORS

Question 3

Advantages of the Electoral College (x4)

Answer 3

Ensures FEDERALISM as small states such as Wyoming remain represented as they can influence the outcome with their disproportionate ECVs

The winner gets a clear majority and thus mandate (In 2012 Obama only won 51.2% of the popular vote but won 332 electoral votes)

FAITLESS ELECTORS prevent TOCQUEVILLE’s ‘tyranny of the majority’

Low turnout e.g. 42.5% in Hawaii in 2016, does NOT affect influence (Hawaii still got 6 ECVs)

Question 4

Disadvantages of the Electoral College (x4)

Answer 4

The winner does not need the popular vote, e.g. Trump winning in 2016, despite having 3 million less votes than Hillary Clinton

Smaller states are overrepresented and have disproportionate influence. A voter in Wyoming has 3.6x the influence of a voter in California

Winner-takes-all system excludes 3rd parties and parties whose support is not geographically concentrated

Faithless electors clearly undermine democracy

Question 5

National Party Conventions

Answer 5

Used to select the presidential candidate, but now acts as a coronation for the winner

Losers endorse the winner in order to increase party unity and chance of success e.g. Bernie Sanders endorsed Joe Biden

Debate policy of the party

Question 6

Primaries (x4)

Answer 6

An intra-party election that uses a secret ballot to vote for a presidential nominee

Open primaries can attract ‘wreckers’

Republicans often use a winner-takes-all system so although Trump won 33% of the vote in South Carolina, he won all 50 delegates. Democrats usually allocate delegates proportionally

The delegates then go and vote at the national party convention

Question 7

Invisible Primary

Answer 7

ARTHUR HADLEY used the name ‘invisible primary’ to describe the time between a candidate formally announcing their intention to run and the first official primary or caucus

In July 2017, John Delaney announced his intention to run for the Democratic nomination, even though the previous presidential had only been held 8 months earlier

Question 8

Caucus

Answer 8

‘Democracy at its most earthy’ - The Times

First used in 1968, votes vote physically

Iowa and New Hampshire hold their primaries and caucuses first

Question 9

Disadvantages of Primaries and Caucuses (x5)

Answer 9

As Iowa and New Hampshire hold their primaries and caucuses first, other states can become disenfranchised if a candidate has already clearly won

Unrepresentative as they have low turnout and attract only activists and radicals

Increase internal divisions as candidates slate each other, ultimately damaging the winner’s chances

Invisible primaries are too early, so make it boring and decrease turnout and interest in politics

Lack of peer review, as top party officials and experts do not get a say

Question 10

Advantages of Primaries and Caucuses (x4)

Answer 10

‘Democracy at its most earthy’ - The Times, as direct participation

Improves political education

Gives voters choice over their party nomination

Thoroughly tests the winning candidate

Question 11

TV Debates

Answer 11

‘US presidential debates rarely settle the outcome of the election’ - The Times

Since 1976 there has been an expectation for candidates polling above 15% to take part in television debates

Whilst it COULD be said that AL GORE’s ‘woeful performance’ was a key factor to him losing the 2000 election, there is no clear correlation between ‘winning’ the debate and the presidency

Question 12

Disadvantages of Incumbency (x2)

Answer 12

Potentially poor record in office (Trump failing to fulfil his promise to overturn Obamacare)

Lacking party support (many Republicans did not support Trump in 2020)

Question 13

Advantages of Incumbency (x4)

Answer 13

Greater name recognition

Greater funding

Usually lacking a primary challenge

Experience in Office

Question 14

Newcome Advantages (x3)

Answer 14

Newcomers can also have great name recognition e.g. Joe Biden and Hillary. Biden won in 2020 despite Trump being the incumbent

Biden spent 952 million whereas Trump spent 612 million in 2020 so the newcomer can raise more funds than the incumbent

Funds do not guarantee success as Trump spent less than Hillary in 2016. As Clinton spent $768 million in whereas Trump spent $398 million

Question 15

Factors that Affect Congress Elections (x4)

Answer 15

97% incumbency rate in 2016 but in 2018 AOC beat an incumbent. Incumbents benefit from Pork-Barrelling e.g. Byrne securing a multimillion dollar ship building contract for his state of Alabama

Affected by the coat-tails effect

Gerrymandering e.g. North Carolina’s 12th Congressional District ‘snake’ reduces competition leading to a foregone conclusion

On average an incumbent raises 7x as much as a newcomer to Congress

Question 16

Choosing a Running Mate

Answer 16

Balancing the ticket e.g. Joe Biden, an older white man chose Kamala Harris, a younger mixed race woman

Candidates often choose their main rival in the primaries as their running mate in order to unite the party e.g. Ronal Reagan chose George Bush Senior in 1980 as his VP

Candidates also factor in their running mate’s experience e.g. George Bush Junior chose Dick Cheney as his VP

Question 17

US Electoral Reform (x5)

Answer 17

Limits on when candidates declare themselves (difficult to enforce)

Legislation about how much can be spent (Citizens United v FEC 2010 ruled this unconstitutional)

Abolishing caucuses and holding all open primaries at the same time (wreckers and state’s right to hold primaries when and how)

Redistributing district lines to end gerrymandering and increase contest (this would harm both parties as they would lose their safe seats)

Compulsory voting and automatic registration increases turnout

Question 18

US Campaign Finance (x3)

Answer 18

Presidential candidates have unlimited funding

Grassroots funding is seen as democratic and Bernie Sanders criticised Pete Buttigieg for using wine cellars

Spending does not guarantee success as Hillary Clinton spent $768 million in whereas Trump spent $398 million

Question 19

Democrats and 3 Factions

Answer 19

Pro-choice, minority rights, welfare and larger government

MODERATES: Centrist and are more willing to reduce welfare and taxes e.g. Amy Klobuchar

LIBERALS: Federal government should be used to achieve social justice. Elizabeth Warren criticised the Trans-Pacific Partnership for exploiting workers for the benefit of the manages

CONSERVATIVE: AKA Blue-Dog Democrats, they support conservative moral issues, but not a Republican stance on the economy. e.g. Stephanie Murphy. In 2015 47 House Democrats voted with Republicans to have additional screening for Iraqi refugees

Question 20

Republicans and 4 Factions

Answer 20

The GOP support controlled immigration, small government and are pro-life

‘Government is the problem, not the solution’ - Reagan

CONSERVATIVES: Low taxation and spending, small government e.g. George Bush Junior

MODERATES: RINOs support welfare and taxation, and are also socially liberal. Susan Collins

LIBERTARIANS: Small government, support gay marriage and low tax, such as Rand Paul

SOCIAL CONSERVATIVE: Christian and oppose abortion e.g. Ann Coulter

Question 21

Super PACS

Answer 21

Super Political Action Committees

Raise and spend unlimited amounts of money to support or oppose candidates but without directly donating or co-ordinating with these candidates

2010 Citizens United v Federal Election Campaign Act ruled that independent spending is a 1st amendment right

Question 22

Interest Groups Influence (x3)

Answer 22

Resources (members and money e.g. US Chambers of Commerce)

Status (National Rifle Association)

Methods (Lobbying and legal methods)

Question 23

US Interest Groups Methods (x4)

Answer 23

LOBBYING (when AIPAC lobbied to overturn the Iran deal)

LEGAL (when the NAACP sponsored Brown v Board in 1954)

ELECTIONEERING (League of Conservation ‘dirty dozen’)

PUBLICITY (such as when the NRA made adverts to highlight Obama’s hypocrisy on armed guards in schools as his daughters had guards)

Question 24

Types of Interest Group (x3)

Answer 24

POLICY GROUPS attempt to influence a whole policy area e.g. American Israel Public Affairs Committee

PROFESSIONAL GROUPS represent the economic interests of their members e.g. American Medical Association

SINGLE INTEREST GROUPS advocate policy surrounding a limited specific issue (National Rifle Association)

Question 25

Interest Groups are Good (x4)

Answer 25

ALEXIS DE TOCQUEVILLE thought that interest groups increased participation (in 2016 the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations encouraged 6 million voters to vote in swing states) and EDUCATION (League of Conservation’s ‘dirty dozen’)

ROBERT DAHL used the CLASSIC PLURALIST ARGUMENT to describe as to how pressure groups made debate and compromise inevitably, leading to the public good

Protection of Rights (NRA)

Representation of Minority Groups Increases (NAACP)

Question 26

Interest Groups are Bad (x4)

Answer 26

WRIGHT-MILLS used ELITE THEORY to describe as to how privileged and wealthy interest groups get to advance their own interest, rather than those of the public

RAUCH used HYPER-PLURALISM- to descibr DEMOSCLEROSIS, and how pressure groups ‘interact to produce a collective stalemate’

Inequality of representation

Restrict the elected government, as AARP tried to prevent Obama from passing the Affordable Care Act

Question 27

UK vs US Comparisons (x4)

Answer 27

Political parties, Elections and Referendums Act of 2000 (30,000 per constituency and 9,750 per constituency from interest groups) vs Citizens United v FEC 2010 which legalises Super PACs and unlimited independent spending, is a difference in structural theory

Another structural difference is the UK’s UNITARY structure vs the US’ FEDERAL structure which means that the US has more access points for interest groups due to state legislatures

A difference in cultural theory is how the US has a more litigious culture, whereas the UK does not. Events such as the BOSTON TEA PARTY have informed a culture focused on rights, whereas in the UK R(Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union was seen as pedantic

The UK has whips whereas the US does not, so interest groups have more influence in the US which is a difference in structural theory