Urban Society: Late 19th Century Before

Question 1

What two inventions led to the development of the skyscraper in the 1880s?

Answer 1

Elisha Otis’ safety elevator made large buildings practical, and the use of the Bessemer Process to create a steel framework enabled buildings to exceed 10 stories.

The first skyscraper was the 10-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago. Skyscrapers proved exceptionally popular in New York City; driven by a lack of available space, New York City grew upwards instead of outwards.

Question 2

Define:

Tammany Hall

Answer 2

Tammany Hall was a political organization within New York City’s Democratic Party. Between the 1860s and the early 1900s, Tammany Hall was the headquarters of New York’s machine politics, where political bosses such Boss Tweed distributed political patronage in exchange for votes and large amounts of cash.

Question 3

What is machine politics?

Answer 3

In machine politics, a political organization is controlled by a “boss” or small leadership group, which can motivate a large “get out the vote” effort. The boss commands enough votes to maintain political and administrative control of a city, county, or state.

Due to their electoral control, political bosses can distribute government positions and government construction projects, often in exchange for bribes or political support.

Question 4

Who was Boss Tweed?

Answer 4

Boss Tweed was a notorious political boss in New York City in the 1860s and 1870s. Through his control of Tammany Hall, Tweed was able bilk New York City out of at least $45 million. Most of Tweed’s support came from newly arrived Irish immigrants, whom he courted by distributions of food and clothing,

Tweed and other political bosses represented the corruption that led Mark Twain to call the period “The Gilded Age.”

Question 5

What artist proved instrumental in bringing down Boss Tweed’s political machine in New York City?

Answer 5

Thomas Nast

Nast’s political cartoons in Harpers Weekly, a popular magazine of the day, spurred an investigation into Tweed’s “Ring” (his group of supporters). Auditors of the city books discovered millions in fraudulent charges.

Tweed fled to Spain, but was captured when Spaniards recognized Tweed’s face from Nast’s cartoons.

Question 6

What term did novelist Mark Twain coin to describe the political corruption that characterized American government following the Civil War?

Answer 6

The period became known as the Gilded Age, derived from a novel Twain published in 1873 about political corruption.

Question 7

How did Stalwart Republicans and Half Breed Republicans differ?

Answer 7

Led by New York’s Roscoe Conkling, the Stalwart Republicans supported the spoils system, under which elected officials distributed jobs to friends and supporters.

In the elections of 1876 and 1880 Stalwart Republicans were opposed by Half-Breed Republicans, who favored civil service reform. Both Rutherford B. Hayes (the 1876 Republican nominee) and James A. Garfield (the 1880 Republican nominee) were Half-Breeds.

Question 8

What significant political change did Rutherford B. Hayes advocate during his Presidency?

Answer 8

President from 1877 to 1871, Hayes advocated Civil Service Reform, setting him at odds with Stalwart Republicans, who continued to support the spoils system.

Hayes’ most prominent reform was to clean up the New York Customs House, emblematic of the spoils system. Hayes’ efforts included firing Chester A. Arthur, the head of the Customs House.

Question 9

How did President Hayes react to French attempts to build a transoceanic canal across Central America in the 1870s?

Answer 9

Hayes contended that “The true policy of the United States as to a canal…is either a canal under American control, or no canal.”

Hayes need not have worried, the French plan was impracticable and failed miserably. Nevertheless, he anticipated American interest in a Canal during the early 20th Century.

Question 10

Why was Chester A. Arthur chosen as James Garfield’s running mate in the 1880 Presidential campaign?

Answer 10

While Garfield was a Half-Breed Republican and in support of civil service reform, Arthur was chosen to appeal to Stalwart Republicans, who supported the spoils system.

Question 11

What did the Pendleton Act (1883) establish?

Answer 11

The Pendleton Act began the decline of the spoils system on the national level by providing selection of government employees based on competitive exams, rather than ties to political figures.

Ironically, the Act was signed by President Chester A. Arthur, who reached the office after the death of President Garfield. Arthur, a Stalwart Republican, was himself a product of the spoils system.

Question 12

Who were the Mugwumps?

Answer 12

The Mugwumps were Republicans who were dissatisfied with the nomination of James G. Blaine as the Republican nominee for President in1884. Believing that Blaine was corrupt, the Mugwumps threw their support behind Democratic Party nominee Grover Cleveland.

Mugwump support in New York State swung the 1884 election to Cleveland, who proved to be the only Democrat to become President between the Civil War and 1912.

Question 13

President Grover Cleveland continued the process of civil service reform by making what announcement after his election in 1884?

Answer 13

Cleveland, a Democrat, announced that he would fire no Republican officeholder who was doing his job well. The announcement disappointed many Democrats, who had been out of office for decades.

Cleveland also reduced the size of several federal agencies, which had become bloated with inefficient appointees.

Question 14

How did President Cleveland invoke the Monroe Doctrine in a dispute with Great Britain?

Answer 14

During his first term, Venezuela and Great Britain’s colony of Guinea became embroiled in a boundary dispute. Venezuela asked for American arbitration, which Britain initially refused.

Invoking the Monroe Doctrine, Cleveland sent a sharply written letter to Britain, who then agreed to arbitration.

Question 15

In the 1888 Presidential Election, Benjamin Harrison defeated Grover Cleveland. What did Harrison and the Republicans advocate?

Answer 15

Harrison and the Republicans advocated a high tariff, which was favored by Northerners who wanted to protect American industry from less expensive foreign manufactured goods.

They also supported the free coinage of silver, which was popular among farmers and laborers.

Question 16

Both Presidents Arthur and Harrison supported the modernization of which branch of the armed services?

Answer 16

The Navy

Under Arthur’s Administration, the Office of Naval Intelligence and the Naval Academy were established. Harrison increased the size of the Navy, adding seven armored cruisers. Prior to Harrison’s increase, the United States had only one modern armored cruiser.

Question 17

In 1882, Congress banned immigration from ______ for a period of 10 years, which was extended an additional 10 years in 1892.

Answer 17

China

The Chinese Exclusion Act was passed in 1882 under pressure of Western nativists. In the West, Chinese miners and laborers made up a large proportion of the workforce, filling jobs which Western workers felt belonged to them.

Question 18

President Harrison continued the trend of American foreign policy to look towards what global region?

Answer 18

United States’ foreign policy continued to focus on Central and South America. Secretary James G. Blaine convoked a Council of American States, which met regularly to resolve political issues in the Western Hemisphere.

Question 19

In 1891, two American sailors (who may have been drunk) were stabbed outside a bar in Valparaiso, Chile. How did President Harrison respond?

Answer 19

Harrison demanded that Chile apologize, the Chileans refused, and Harrison threatened war. Secretary of State James G. Blaine, who’d been severely ill, returned and calmed the situation. Chile agreed to pay nominal reparations.

Question 20

Making good on their electoral promise, Republicans in Congress passed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act. What did the Act accomplish?

Answer 20

The Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 obligated the government to purchase a minimum amount of silver each month, reducing the supply of silver in the open market, and driving up its price.

Farmers hoped the Act would spur the economy and cause inflation, which would in turn enable farmers (many of whom were heavily in debt) to pay off their debt with less expensive dollars.

Question 21

In 1890, at the same time they passed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, Congressional Republicans passed the McKinley Tariff. What did the Tariff establish?

Answer 21

The McKinley Tariff, proposed by future President William McKinley, increased tariff rates to almost 50%.

The McKinley Tariff was strongly supported by Republican protectionists, who advocated protecting American businesses and workers within a country by restricting or regulating trade with foreign nations.

Question 22

What was the “billion-dollar Congress?”

Answer 22

From 1889 to 1891, during the first two years of President Benjamin Harrison’s Administration, the Congress passed the first ever billion-dollar budget. The budget included pensions for non-combatants who had served in the Civil War, substantial increases in appropriations for the Navy, and other lavish spending.

Question 23

What was the Populist Party?

Answer 23

Active during the late 19th Century, the Populists fielded James G. Weaver as a Presidential Candidate in 1892. The Populists sought to build a coalition of urban workers and farmers in the Midwest, and appealed to supporters of the Greenback Party, Union workers, and those who belonged to the Farmers’ Alliance. Over one million voters cast ballots for Populist candidates in 1892, and Weaver carried four states.

As part of their 1892 platform, the Populists adopted the Ocala Declaration.

Question 24

What significant reforms did the Populists propose?

Answer 24

Drawing support from laborers, farmers, and reformers, the populists proposed a graduated income tax, restrictions on immigration, public ownership of railroads, telephones, and telegraphs, and the direct election of senators.

Prior to the passage of the 17th Amendment in 1912, senators were elected by state legislatures, rather than by the voters at large.

Question 25

During the 1870s, most immigrants to the United States arrived from the countries of Northern Europe. During 1880s and 1890s from where did most European immigrants arrive?

Answer 25

Most new immigrants were from Italy, or were Jews from Eastern Europe.

Increasingly, these immigrants clustered in their own neighborhoods, such as Little Italy in Manhattan, or University City in St. Louis.

Question 26

Grover Cleveland’s biographer, Allan Nevins, called the 1892 Presidential election “the cleanest, quietest, and most creditable in the memory of the post-war generation.” What two issues were prominent in the campaign?

Answer 26

Once again, the issues tariffs and silver coinage took the forefront. As an economic conservative, Cleveland was against free silver, and won a resounding victory. Cleveland was aided in part by dissatisfaction with the McKinley Tariff, which had exorbitantly raised prices.

Question 27

In 1893, the stock market suffered a collapse similar to the one in 1873 when railroad overbuilding led to bank failures. How did President Cleveland address the Depression that resulted?

Answer 27

Believing that the depression was caused by the free coinage of silver and a shortage of gold. Cleveland convinced Congress to repeal the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890, and to reduce the McKinley Tariff’s rate by passing the Wilson Tariff Act.

Despite their efforts, Cleveland and the Democrats shouldered much of the blame for the Depression which lasted from 1893 to 1897 and resulted in their losing heavily in 1894 Congressional elections.

Question 28

What was Coxey’s Army?

Answer 28

Coxey’s Army, led by Populist James A. Coxey, was a group of thousands of unemployed men who marched on Washington in 1894 as a result of the Depression.

Coxey’s Army demanded a public works program, but following their leaders’ arrest, the group disbanded.

Question 29

The worsening depression, which began in 1893, led to what result in the 1894 election?

Answer 29

Cleveland’s Democrats were trounced, and while the Republicans gained control of Congress, the Populists made a strong showing in the West.

The main issue of the campaign was whether or not the government should issue silver coinage.

Question 30

In The Rise of Silas Lapham and A Modern Instance, _____ _____ ______ examined the role of wealth and industrialization on the American Family.

Answer 30

William Dean Howells

Howells adopted the literary style of realism, which sought to depict life as it was, with an emphasis on everyday activities and experiences rather than a romanticized depiction of life.

Question 31

Much like the novels of William Dean Howells, artists such as James Whistler, Winslow Homer, and Thomas Eakins adopted an artistic style known as _____.

Answer 31

Realism

Whistler specialized in paintings that emphasized color over subject matter. Homer emphasized true-to-life pictures of nature, while Eakins depicted the everyday life of working men and women.

Question 32

Beginning in the 1860s and continuing until the birth of radio in the 1920s, what was the most popular entertainment form in the United States?

Answer 32

Vaudeville

A vaudeville show was typically a variety show, with several unrelated acts, including acrobats, animal acts, singers, and comedians.

Several of the early radio and television stars got their start in vaudeville, including Burns and Allen, Bob Hope, and Jack Benny.

Question 33

The most popular of the Wild West Shows was led by _____ _____.

Answer 33

Buffalo Bill

William “Buffalo Bill” Cody’s shows featured Indians, sharpshooters such as Annie Oakley, and depictions of stage coach robberies. The most popular of the Wild West shows, Buffallo Bill and his troop toured North America and Europe to sold out performances.

Buffalo Bill was the consummate showman. One of his biggest publicity stunts was to have his Indians arrive in Spain on October 12, 1892, the 400th Anniversary of Columbus’ arrival in the Americas.

Question 34

Define:

Social Gospel

Answer 34

Proponents of the Social Gospel contended that it was their Christian duty to improve the lives of the less fortunate. They contended that Christian ethics should be applied to social problems, especially issues of social justice such as alcoholism, crime, racial issues, slums, poor hygiene, and inadequate schools.

Prominent Social Gospel advocates included Jane Addams and Walter Rauschenbusch.

Question 35

What was Hull House?

Answer 35

Founded by Social Gospel advocate Jane Addams, Hull House aided recent immigrants in Chicago. Hull House provided English lessons, child care to working mothers, and children’s playgrounds.

Settlement houses like Hull House proliferated throughout the United States’ major metropolitan areas during the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Question 36

What is the Salvation Army?

Answer 36

Arriving in America from Great Britain in 1879, the Salvation Army adapted military organization toward caring for the homeless. The Salvation Army proved especially effective at aiding the poor and preaching the gospel in the rapidly expanding urban areas.

Question 37

Mary Baker Eddy founded the Church of Christ, Scientist in the late 19th Century. What did Eddy contend?

Answer 37

Eddy and the Christian Scientists, as they came to be known contended that good health resulted from proper thinking about the “Father Mother God.” Christian Scientists commonly refused medical treatment, believing that disease resulted from ignorance, fear, or sin, and could be healed solely by recourse to prayer.

Question 38

Who was Dwight Moody?

Answer 38

Moody was the founder of Chicago’s Moody Bible Institute, which specialized in training ministers to evangelize the poor in urban areas and adapting Christian teachings to city life.

Question 39

Between 1861 and 1888, schools such as Vassar, Wellesley, and Mount Holyoke were founded. What did these schools represent?

Answer 39

These new schools represented an emphasis on women’s education. Prior to the founding of these all-female colleges and universities, higher education for women had focused mainly on the development of social graces. Schools such as Wellesley focused on a curriculum of intellectual rigor, and for the first time advanced education was available to women.

Question 40

Who were the leaders of the National American Woman Suffrage Association?

Answer 40

The National American Woman Suffrage Association’s leaders were Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony.

The Association was the result of the merger of the American Women’s Suffrage Association and the National Women’s Suffrage Association in 1890, and continued to advocate for the extension of voting rights to women.

Question 41

During the late 19th Century, women were still denied a vote in most areas, but did achieve suffrage in what section of the country?

Answer 41

In many Western states, women received the right to vote, at least in Presidential elections. Wyoming allowed women to vote in the territorial constitution in 1869, and continued to allow female suffrage so after becoming a state. Utah followed suit as did Arizona, California, and other states within the next few decades.

Question 42

What “vice” did the Women’s Christian Temperance Union target?

Answer 42

The Women’s Christian Temperance Union targeted alcohol and by the late 1890s had almost half a million members. A related entity, the Anti-Saloon League, convinced 21 states to ban saloons and bars.

To appeal to men, female temperance workers championed the slogan “lips which touch liquour shall never touch mine.”

Question 43

In 1873, Congress passed the Comstock Law, which prevented what activity?

Answer 43

The Comstock Law, championed by Anthony Comstock, prevented the mailing of “obscene” materials through the U.S. mails.

As a postal inspector, Comstock took it upon himself to determine whether materials were obscene, and included in his list not only pornography but materials discussing abortion and birth control.

Question 44

In 1890, Alfred Mahan wrote The Influence of Sea Power on History. What did Mahan argue?

Answer 44

The head of the United States Naval College, Mahan contended that any army would eventually succumb to a blockade and thus sea power, and not a strong army alone, was imperative for national survival.

Mahan’s work resulted in renewed enthusiasm for a strong U.S. Navy, which in the 1880s was weaker than the navies of countries such as Chile and Italy. A strong navy led U.S. victories in the Spanish-American War, and the dispatch of the Great White Fleet.

Question 45

What is the name of photographer and social reformer Jacob Riis’ most influential work?

Answer 45

How the Other Half Lives

Published in 1890, How the Other Half Lives contained photographs of the living conditions in New York’s tenements and slums. The shock value of Riis’ photographs drew attention to the squalid living conditions of the “other half.”