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Geography > *Urban Issues and Challenges (Paper 2) > Flashcards

*Urban Issues and Challenges (Paper 2) Flashcards

This is a compulsory topic. It covers urban growth in LICs'NEEs, urban change in cities in the UK and urban sustainability.

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1
Q

Define urbanisation

A

The rise in the percentage of people living in urban areas (towns and cities), in comparison with rural areas.

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2
Q

Describe the global pattern of urban change

A
  • Rates of urbansiation different depending on whether the country is rich or poor.
  • The most rapid urban growth is happening in LICs.
  • The lowest rates of urban growth is in HICs
  • The rate of urban growth in NEEs is starting to slow.
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3
Q

Which continent has the highest rate of urbanisation?

A

Africa

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4
Q

What two factors affect the rate of urbanisation?

A
  1. Rural-urban migration
  2. Natural increase
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5
Q

Define natural increase

A

When the birth rate in a country is greater than the death rate.

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6
Q

Define migration

A

The movement of population from one area to another. Some migrations are forced, voluntary, permanent and temporary, International and regional.

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7
Q

How is natural increase calculated?

A

Birth Rate minus Death Rate/100 (to express as a percentage)

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8
Q

Define rural to urban migration

A

The movement of people from rural to urban areas due to rural push and urban pull factors.

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9
Q

List three push factors

A
  • Drought / flooding
  • Lack of services
  • Few opportunities
  • Low pay
  • Poverty
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10
Q

List three pull factors

A
  • Better quality of life
  • Better access to services (e.g. education, health and entertainment)
  • Better quality houses
  • Increased pay
  • Improved opportunities
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11
Q

What is a megacity?

A

A city with a population of 10 million people or more.

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12
Q

Name three megacities

A

Los Angeles, Mexico City, New York, Buenos Aires, Sao Paulo, Lagos, Karachi, Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Dhaka, Jakarta, Metro Manila, Shanghai, Osaka, Tokyo.

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13
Q

Which two population factors combine to produce megacities?

A

Migration + Natural Increase

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14
Q

Which continent has the largest number of megacities?

A

Asia

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15
Q

Describe the location of Rio de Janeiro

A

Rio de Jeneiro is a city located in the country of Brazil. Brazil is a country in South America.

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16
Q

Give a reason to explain why Rio is an internationally important city

A
  • It held the 2009 Olympic Games
  • Main tourist destinations in the Southern Hemisphere.
  • It has a major port - its main exports are coffee, sugar and iron ore.
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17
Q

Give a reason to explain why Rio is a nationally important city

A
  • It is Brazil’s second largest city in terms of its financial and service industries.
  • It produces 5% of Brazil’s GDP
  • It is considered the cultural capital of Brazil with many museums, popular music and the famous Carnaval celebration
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18
Q

Why has Rio de Janeiro grown as a city?

A
  • Rio has grown as a major industrial city.
  • It has developed as a Global City because of its industry and its excellent transport links i.e. 5 ports and 3 airports.
  • Increase amount of migrants moving to the city in the search for work or a better quality of life.
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19
Q

City growth in Rio de Janeiro is prevented by which physical factors?

A

There are mountains to the north and west, and sea to the south and east.

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20
Q

How is Rio’s housing segregated?

A
  • High class residential areas are found next to the CBD (city centre) and along beaches of areas such as Copacabana.
  • Middle level residential areas have developed near the airport and highways.
  • Favelas have grown on the edge of the urban area.
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21
Q

How has urban growth created opportunities for Rio?

A
  • The growth of Rio has boosted the city’s economic development. This has improved city’s infrastructure.
  • Global companies have been attracted creating formal sector jobs.
  • Hosting the Olympic games in 2009 had led to sponsorship deals worth $900million
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22
Q

Describe the social challenges facing Rio

A
  • 1. Health care - just over half of the city has access to a local health clinic.
  • 2. Education - half of all children continue their education after 14. Many become involved in crime.
  • 3. Water supply - 12% of Rio’s population did not have access to running water.
  • 4. Energy - shortage of elecricity = powercuts
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23
Q

Describe the economic challenges facing Rio

A
  • 1. Unemployment - 20% of those living in favelas are unemployed.
  • 2. Lots of people working in the informal sector - they don’t pay taxes, don’t have insurance and are poorly paid.
  • 3. Crime - Robbery and violent crime are big challenges.
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24
Q

Describe the environmental challenges facing Rio

A
  • 1. Air pollution - causes 5,000 deaths per year in Rio
  • 2. Traffic congestion caused by few roads due to mountain landscape and more people owning cars.
  • 3. Water pollution - Guanabara Bay is highly polluted causing a threat to wildlife. Caused by pollution from favelas and industrial waste.
  • 4. Waste pollution - it is difficult to get waste collection lorries into the steep sided streets of the favelas
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25
Q

How have social problems in Rio been solved?

A
  • 1. Health care - medical staff have taken medical kits to people’s homes
  • 2. Education - encouraging local volunteers to help in schools, opening a university in Rocinha
  • 3. Water supply - 7 water treatment plants were built. By 2014, 95% of he population had a mains water supply.
  • 4. Energy - 60km of new power lines installed, developing Simplicio hydro-electric complex which will increase Rio’s electricity supply by 30%
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26
Q

How have the economic problems in Rio been solved?

A
  • 1. Unemployment - ‘Schools of Tomorrow’ programme aims to improve education for young people in the poor and violent areas of the city.
  • 2. High levels of informal sector employment - courses are available for adults who have temporarily left education but want to continue their studies.
  • 3. Crime - Police Pacifying Units were established to reclaim favelas from drug dealers
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27
Q

How have the environmental problems in Rio been solved?

A
  • 1. Air pollution - expansion of the metro system (public transport)
  • 2. Traffic congestion - new toll roads in the city centre
  • 3. Water pollution - 12 new sewage works have been built, ships fined for dumping waste
  • 4. Waste pollution - a power plant has been set up using methane gas (biogas) from rotting rubbish.
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28
Q

Define informal sector

A

People working that do not receive a regular wage, making and/ or selling goods/services unofficially, often for ‘cash in hand’. They don’t have a contract, health and safety protection, health insurance or pension schemes. They don’t pay taxes

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29
Q

Define shanty town

A

A squatter settlement that springs up in an area that used to have no houses. (Also called spontaneous settlements).

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30
Q

Define squatter

A

Someone who settles on land without the legal rights to stay there

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31
Q

Where do squatter settlements occur ?

A

Usually in least favourable parts of the city (e.g. steep hillsides or swamp areas)

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32
Q

Why do squatter settlements occur?

A

Usually because of rapid rural-urban migration so governments don’t have time to provide houses, drainage, clean water, schools etc.

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33
Q

What are the challenges of squatter settlements in Rio

A
  • 1. Construction - houses are poorly constructed. Limited road access.
  • 2. Services - lack of access to basic facilities e.g. no have running water, no electricity, no sewage connections.
  • 3. Unemployment - 20% are unemployed. Many work in the informal sector.
  • 4. Crime - There is a high murder rate. Drug gangs often dominate the favelas.
  • 5. Health - Infant mortality rates are high. Waste cannot be disposed of safely leading to disease.
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34
Q

What is a favela?

A

A name of a squatter settlement in Brazil

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35
Q

Name the biggest favela in Rio?

A

Rocinha

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36
Q

Why are there increasing numbers of favelas in Brazil?

A

Many people have migrated to Brazil in the hope of finding a better life so informal housing (i.e. favelas) have been built to deal with the rapid influx of people.

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37
Q

What improvements have happened in the favela, Rocinha?

A
  • 90% of houses are now built with brick and have electricity and clean water.
  • Many houses have TVs and fridges
  • Has it owns newspaper and radio station, schools, health facilities and a private university
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38
Q

How have Rio’s favelas been improved?

A
    1. People have been moved to new areas such as Barra da Tijuca to reduce over crowding
    1. Developing rural areas to encourage more people to stay in countryside
    1. Favela Bairro Project - securing hillsides, installing cable cars, access to credit to allow residents to buy materials to improve their homes, Police Pacifying Units to patrol the community for extra security.
39
Q

Name some positives and negatives of the Favela Bairro Project been?

A

POSITIVE: Quality of life, mobility and employment has improved.

NEGATIVE: more training needed to improve literacy

NEGATIVE: rents in the favelas have now increased and the poorest are now worse off.

40
Q

How is the UK’s population distributed?

A

There are large concentrations of people living in areas that were once shaped by the Industrial revolution. e.g. in the Central Lowlands (Scotland), North East England e.g. Newcastle, West Yorkshire, South Wales etc where there were supplies of coal and raw materials. London developed because of its position as the capital and its associated political and administrative functions.

41
Q

Name some major cities in the UK

A
  • London
  • Birmingham
  • Leeds
  • Glasgow
  • Sheffield
  • Liverpool
  • Manchester
  • Bristol
  • Cardiff
  • Belfast
42
Q

How are UK cities growing?

A
  • Fastest growing cities are in the South East because of the proximity to London.
  • The only city in the UK where the population has fallen is Sunderland, due to a loss of jobs, forcing people to move away.
43
Q

How might the population distribution of the UK change?

A
  • General drift towards the south east of England (London) - one of the world’s financial, business and cultural centres.
  • There has been an increase in the number of migrants entering the UK and settling in large cities
  • Movement of people from urban to rural areas with larger numbers of older people retiring to the countryside or coast.
44
Q

Where is Newcastle upon Tyne?

A

Newcastle is located in the North East of England, approximately 15 miles from the coast. It is located on the River Tyne.

45
Q

Why is Newcastle an important city?

A
  • Newcastle contributes £13 billion to the UK economy.
  • It is home to several top British businesses such as SAGE computing and Greggs.
  • Newcastle is located on the A1 connecting the city to other major cities.
  • Newcastle has hosted many international events such as the Rugby World Cup
46
Q

How has migration affected the growth of the city of Newcastle?

A
  • Many migrants complete unskilled jobs which fills jobs gap in Newcastle
  • Many migrants are highly skilled, ensuring we have a diverse economy
  • Many migrants are young which means that they start families in Newcastle, increasing the population.
  • Increased pressure housing and services such as healthcare.
47
Q

How has migration affected the character of Newcastle?

A
  • Increased cultural diveristy leading to more opportunites for shared culture and recreational activities i.e. China Town.
  • Range of cultural experiences are now a regular occurence e.g. Mela festival in West
  • More enclaves / racial tensions
48
Q

What is ethnic segregation?

A

People from a particular ethnic background will often live in an area of the city, separate from other groups

49
Q

How has urban changes has created opportunities for Newcastle’s environment

A

Urban greening: this means providing adequate green space in cities. This has been done in Newcastle:

  1. Town Moor - an area of common land. Freemen of the city graze cows on this land.
  2. Jesmond Dene - a public park. Home to a petting zoo, cafe and arts fairs. Popular place of walks.
50
Q

Define ‘integrated transport’?

A

Linked traffic management schemes that provide a ‘door to door’ service to try to rival the use of a car

51
Q

Give some examples of the cultural mix opportunites created by urban growth in Newcastle

A
  • China Town - vibrant Chinese culture e.g. restaurants.
  • The Mela festival based around South Asian cultures, including music, dance and food stalls.
  • The Ouseburn has many bars and comedy clubs which have a strong connection to Newcastle’s indsutrial past.
52
Q

Give some examples of the recreation and entertainment opportunites created by urban growth in Newcastle

A
  • Theatre Royal which shows over 400 shows a year. Metro Radio area, the largest indoor arena in the North East.
  • Eldon Square.
  • Near to Metro Centre, the second largest shopping centre in the UK.
  • St James’ football stadium
53
Q

Give some examples of the employment opportunites created by urban growth in Newcastle

A
  • Increasing employment in service sector after decline of heavy iindustries (coal mining and ship building).
  • Many jobs now in office, service and retail.
54
Q

Give some examples of intergrated transport systems in Newcastle that are an opprtunity for the city

A
  • Nexus underground Metro connects Newcastle to the Coast the Sunderland.
  • National rail station mean Newcastle is well connected to other locations which encourages visitors to the area.
55
Q

What happened in Newcastle after the shipbuilding and coal mining industries closed?

A

SPIRAL OF DECLINE:

  1. 19th Century: Newcastle was a powerhosue of the Industrial Revolution (ship building, coal mining.)
  2. 1970s: 1,500 people lost their jobs when these industries closed.
  3. Less money spent in the local economy & competition for near by Metro centre but shops under strain.
  4. Increased amounts of brownfield land left over which is unattractive to new businesses

However, The Tyne and Wear Development Coproration (TWDC) injected money into the Newcastle Quayside to improve the area.

56
Q

What is urban deprivation?

A

A standard of living that involves a lack of access to services. There are usually visible differences in the housing and opportunities between rich and poor.

57
Q

Give some evidence of economic deprivation in Newcastle

A
  1. Job type: 29% of people aged 16-64 in North East have a degree or equivalent meaning they work in less professional occupations
  2. Disposable income: average disposable income of £14,500 (Newcastle) a year compared with England average of £17,800
  3. Unemployment: in Newcastle, 15% of the working age population are not in work. Many of which are claiming benefits.
58
Q

What is the spiral of decline?

A

A series of negative events that happen as a result of the loss of industry in an area

59
Q

What caused the spiral of decline in Newcastle and why did this happen?

A

Newcastle lost its heavy industries of shipbuilding because:

  1. River Tyne was not big enough to make the size of the ships needed to trade
  2. Ships could be made cheaper in Asia

Because a large amount of men were employed in these industries, they lost their jobs which triggered a spiral of decline.

60
Q

Define deindustrialisation?

A

The loss of a industry e.g. manufacturing. This has happened in a lot of big UK cities e.g. Newcastle and Glasgow, Sheffield, Sunderland

61
Q

What issues is Newcastle facing with regard to waste and air pollution?

A
  1. Waste: Huge amounts of waste ends up in landfill despite the council making people separate their rubbish.
  2. Air pollution: The West Road in Newcastle has been identifed as having illegal levels of air pollution by a government agency. Exposure to higher levels of pollution can cause health problems.
62
Q

What issues is Newcastle facing with regard to derelict land?

A
  • Derelict land left behind after the closure of heavy industries has left behind large quanitites of brownfield land.
  • Housing is a big issue in many cities in the UK. Brownfield land may be the ideal location to build on in order to preserve green space.
  • Though the land is cheaper to buy, it may need to be cleaned up before building on and can have a large amount of industrial scarring which will cost money to repair.
63
Q

What is a brownfield site?

A

Land that has previously been used, often by industry, that is now abandoned. They are commonly found in inner city areas.

64
Q

What are the advantages of building on brownfield sites?

A
  • Land is often cheaper than other inner city land as it has previously been used and requires clean up
  • Often many sites are available after loss of industry
  • New developments will improve the look of the area and may encourage new investment.
65
Q

What are the disadvantages of building on brownfield sites?

A
  • Clean up costs due to contamination of the area from previous industry.
  • Old buildings may need to be knocked down
66
Q

What environmental problems does Newcastle face as a result of urban growth?

A
  1. Pollution & waste management
  2. Dereliction (increase in brownfield sites)
  3. Building on greenfield sites
  4. Urban sprawl
67
Q

What is a greenfield site?

A

An area of land, often in the countryside or the edge of a city, that has not yet been built on.

68
Q

What are the advantages of building on greenfield sites?

A
  • Land is free from building so no demolition needs to happen
  • Land is cheaper as it is further away from the city centre
69
Q

What are the disadvantages of building on greenfield sites?

A
  • Valuable farm land may be lost
  • Animals habitats are destroyed
  • Poor transport links exist
70
Q

What is the green belt?

A

A area of open space around a city on which there are strict planning laws to prevent development of this land (prevent urban sprawl).

71
Q

What are the disadvantages of urban sprawl?

A
  1. Extra cost to the tax payer – taxes will be used to pay for infrastructure such as roads and water works.
  2. Increased traffic in the area leads to more congestion and pollution.
  3. ​Environmental issues - green space is lost which means habitats are lost.
  4. Impact on social lives – new communities often live further from other communities which can cause isolation. ​
72
Q

What is the rural-urban fringe?

A

The area of green space that borders the edge of the city

73
Q

Why are people concerned about building on greenfield sites?

A
  • It encourages urban sprawl
  • Derelict land could be used instead to improve inner city areas
  • It takes up precious green space
74
Q

What is a commuter settlement?

A

A town where the residents usually travel outside of area to work, but stay here to sleep and eat.

75
Q

Give an example of a settlement built in the rural-urban fringe in Newcastle upon Tyne

A

Newcastle Great Park

76
Q

Define sustainability

A

Meeting the needs of the current population without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

77
Q

What are the key elements of sustainability?

A

ENVIRONMENTAL: The environment is not damaged​

ECONOMIC: Resources e.g. water and energy are allocated fairly and jobs are secure)

SOCIAL: Strong sense of community (local people are involved in local decisions)​

78
Q

Explain two reasons why a city can be seen to be unsustainable

A
  • They ‘suck in’ and consume enormous quantities of resources e.g. water, energy, food and raw materials.
  • They produce enormous amounts of waste. This is usually got rid of in the surrounding land, rivers, sea and air.
79
Q

How might you conserve the environment in a city?

(HINT: historic environment and natural environment)

A
  • Historic: old industrial buildings turned into apartments, rundown housing redeveloped, canals in cities can be rebranded and regenerated as leisure facilities.
  • Natural: more renewable electricity, collect and recycle water (instead of piping it in from reservoirs), run fuel-efficient public transport systems.
80
Q

List ways to improve a city’s sustainability

A
  1. Provide green space
  2. Recycling water
  3. Reducing reliance on fossil fuels and rethinking transport options
  4. Involving local communities and providing a range of employment
  5. Conserving cultural, historical and environmental sites and buildings
  6. Minimising the use of greenfield sites by using brownfield sites instead.
81
Q

How do open spaces help make a city more sustainable?

A

Vital to make cities more sustainable. They act like ‘green lungs’ reducing its impact on the environment by absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen.

82
Q

Explain how urban living can be made more sustainable?

A
  • Involve local people in decisions for example from where new houses should be built to how local health and social care services are planned and run.
  • Encouragement and availability of recycling waste facilities.
  • Encourage people to generate their own electricity (e.g. solar panels or wind turbines)
  • Provide adequate greenspace
  • Encourage people to use less water / recycle
83
Q

Name an example of a sustainable urban area

A

BedZed - Beddington Zero Energy Development ​

84
Q

How is BedZed sustainable?

A
  • Building materials that store heat and release it when cool
  • Natural/ recycled/ reclaimed building materials
  • South facing homes, North facing office (no air con)
  • Thick insulation (300mm)
  • Produce at least as much renewable energy that is consumed
  • Use heat from cooking and everyday activities for space heating
  • Low-energy appliances and lighting
  • Energy tracking meters
  • Roof gardens
  • Rainwater harvesting
  • Green transport plan/ car sharing scheme.
85
Q

Describe the ways that water and energy can be made more sustainable in urban areas

A
  • Recycling water so it can be used again e.g. grey water is water that has been collected in households i.e rainwater can be filtered and used to flush toilets
  • using renewable sources to generate energy i.e. solar panels on homes
  • Dual flush on toilets can reduce water used
  • Water and Smart metres make people aware of their energy useable.
86
Q

Describe the ways that waste management can be made more sustainable

A
  • Getting people to recycle their household waste - separating plastics and paper etc.
  • Charges for using plastic products deters people from using plastic.
  • Fines for houses / businesses that don’t recycle
87
Q

Describe how creating green spaces is a feature of sustainable urban living

A
  • Encourages conservation of animals
  • Trees are ‘green lungs’ which means they remove CO2 from the atmosphere which is essential to reduce global warming
  • Green spaces protect soil which prevents flooding during heavy rainfall
  • Green spaces provide an area for recreation
88
Q

Give some examples of urban transport strategies that have been used to reduce traffic congestion

A
  1. Encouraging people to car share
  2. Oyster cards in London charge people for the cheapest travel
  3. Car scrappage schemes – owners of cars over 10 years are given £2,000 towards a new car if they scrapped their old car.
  4. Scratch bikes make it easier for people to hire a bike and use it in no car zones.
  5. London’s ‘congestion charge’ which charges anyone who drives into the centre of London
89
Q

Describe four ways to reduce the impact of traffic in cities

A
  1. Park and ride: drivers leave cars in a car park on the outskirts of the city and bus into the centre so fewer cars in city centre
  2. Bus lanes: Lanes for buses and sometimes taxis only so buses aren’t held up, fewer cars on the roads
  3. Trams: Urban tramways powered by electricity lines so less air pollution.
  4. Congestion charge: People pay to enter certain zones in the city so people avoid this route by car
90
Q

Define urban regeneration

A

Urban regeneration is improving an area which has previously been in decline.

91
Q

Name an area of Newcastle that has experienced regeneration

A

The Quayside

92
Q

Why did the Quayside need regenerating?

A
  • Declined as a result of competition from overseas industries (ships could be built cheaply in Asia).
  • Factories and warehouses were left abandoned, land was left derelict or polluted.
  • High unemployment in the area and the areas had fallen into a cycle of decline.
93
Q

What were the features of the Newcastle/Gateshead Quayside regeneration?

A

Creating Newcastle Business Park - £140 million development of office spaces on derelict land.

  • £2 million to revive 10 major historic buildings along the quayside
  • Building cultural attractions – the Sage, Baltic and Millennium bridge.
  • The Tyne and Wear Development Corporation (TWDC) (an urban development group):
    • Create new business districts or modern offices and industrial estates
    • Increasing employment through grants and training
94
Q

What evidence is there that the Quayside regeneration was successful?

A
  • Jobs created in a range of job sectors i.e. services jobs in cafes and bars, high skilled jobs in law courts and businesses.
  • House prices increased
  • Attractive to students and young professionals
  • Increased levels of tourism because of the cultural attractions

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