🔵Urban Issues and Challenges Flashcards
Urban trends in different parts of the world
Highest rate of charge = LIC’s = Africa + Asia
Rates of urbanisation and HIC’s is lower
In NEE’s rate of urbanisation are starting to slow down as urbanisation happen early in these countries such as Brazil. Also slower rate verbalisation in Europe/North America as a higher percentage of the people in these areas already live in urban areas
What’s an urban area?
A built-up area
Eg. Town / city
What is urbanisation?
Proportion of people living in urban areas, it’s currently 60%
Give some causes of growth
LIC’s + NEE’s
Natural increase — increasing birth rate and death rate
Migration – push and pull theory
What is the push and pull theory?
A pull factor is the reason people want to go to urban areas and a push factor is a reason people want to leave.
What are some examples of pull factors?
Social – doctor to patient ratio/healthcare + schooling is better
Political – freedom and stability
Environmental – natural disaster risk decreases
Economic - variety and better paid jobs
Examples of push factors?
Environmental – droughts are more likely, leave soil dry and infertile which limits the food supply resulting in less money
Social – bad healthcare/doctor to patient ratio is bad
Political – there are political issues and no/less freedom
Economic – scarce and badly paid jobs compared to urban areas areas
Mumbai importance regionally
It’s the capital of the Maharashtra state
Has the best education in universities
Offers the most social and economic opportunities creating a rural to urban pool
Best living standard
Best healthcare
Has an unskilled workforce
Has factory jobs – trade
Mumbai importance nationally
Connect other Indian cities via rail and road links
6% of India’s GDP and 40% of foreign trade and 25% of industrial production in Mumbai
Hope the technical industries
Reserve bank of India
Entertainment and fashion Central
International importance of Mumbai
Significant shipping routes, had a large port in large airports which is good for exports. Shipping routes through the Suez Canal and Mediterranean Sea
Centre of the Hindi movie industries and produces the largest number of films per year in the world, is home to ‘Bollywood Films’
How has urban growth created opportunities
Mumbai
Economic – finance capital of India/employs a large number of people/centre of Hindi movie industry/easy to be self-employed
Social – high literacy rates/better and more schools/more job opportunities/has some of the most expensive property in the world
Environmental - more renewable energy can be used
Why did Hulme need regeneration?
In the 1950s Hulme experienced mass slum clearance and aim to improve housing but initial regeneration failed – long concrete buildings, four stories high with built cheap and quickly there was a lot of community and isolated feelings and social issues such as crime and vandalism developed. Industries closed and unemployment increased there was also no usable green space
Main features of Hulme regeneration project explained
1990’s regeneration took place
Social — Created housing in circular structure to create a sense of community a better housing standard. Reduction in crime rates (safer)
Environmental – usable green space such as garden centre and Hulme Park
Economic – more jobs (High Street)/ Z-arts
How have urban transport strategies been used to reduce traffic congestion?
Clean streets campaign, bike rentals
London has an integrated transport system which is all controlled by the TFL, it’s efficient and easy to use so it attracts more people to use (reduction in car use)
Congestion charge introduced in 2003
Charge people who are into London by car
Global pattern of urban change
Overall % of population in urban areas has increased.
Most developed areas - steeply rose between 1950-2000, then started to slow down, predicted to plateau near 2050
Population 1950=50%, population 2050 = 85%
Less developed areas - very steeply rising between 1950-2050 at a fairly constant rate (more fast near the 2030-2050)
Population in urban areas 1950=20%, 2050 = 75%
Least developed countries - steep rise between 1950-2000, but extremely steep rise between 2020-2050.
Population in urban areas in 1950 = 8%, 2050 = over 50%
What’s are megacities?
A very large city with a total population of over 10million people
Where is megacity growth most present
Asia
America also has quite a lot of megacities but Asia has more
Megacity examples
Shanghai (China) Beijing (China) Delhi (India) Tokyo Beijing New York (America)
How has urban growth created challenges?
Mumbai
Environmental =initially an area of temporary shelter, now is a permanent feature / water pipes often run close to sewer lines and there are often leaks contaminating the clean water. Dharavi - children play alongside sewer waste / doctors deal with 4000 cases a day of sewage related disease / rubbish left in streets / contamination of water / overcrowded roads
Social = inadequate resources + declining standards in public institutions / high crime rates (1/3 of population are victims of crime) / water shortages / overcrowding - diseases spread fast
Economic = lots of unemployment - urbanisations the main cause (economic growth can’t keep up)/ people are low paid / drop out rates high especially in slum areas (kids need to get jobs to help family)
What’s a social opportunity?
Opportunities that help people on some way or other
Social opportunity - healthcare
Mumbai
People have easier access to a wider range of medical devices (doctors/hospitals/nurses). Even poorer people have access to these that they wouldn’t have if they lived in a more rural area.
Social opportunities - education
Migration to Mumbai to have better education system for their children
Social / environmental opportunities - water supply
Variable in Mumbai
Dharavi slum - water only in use for 2h a day + queue for water, however at least they do not needed to walk to a local well and the water is clean with no parasites / harmful substances.
Social / environment opportunities - energy
Mumbai allows people to live with benefit of energy / electricity. Some rural areas in India do not have electricity.
It also enables the use of renewable energy.
Economic opportunities - employment
Mumbai has large unskilled workforce making it easy to be employed.
Large range of jobs on Mumbai / banking jobs / film industry / rag pickers
Has a formal and informal economy
What’s a formal economy?
registered jobs where the workers’ pay taxes to the government and the companies have a legal obligation to protect their workers, offer holidays and pay regular wages.
What’s an informal economy?
no minimum wage, the workers are unlikely to pay taxes, have no holiday rights and often work in dangerous or hazardous conditions.
Eg. rag picking, breaking up and recycling old electronic products, recycling waste, making pottery, selling items on the street etc.
The key to many these jobs is that they cost little to set up, use simple tools and are labour intensive (involve lots of human work).
Solution to water pollution - Mumbai
Upgrade sewerage plants by Government and city authorities and ensure treated sewage is optimised at the highest level before being released
Solution to water - Mumbai
slum of Dharavi has a recycling zone - way to more sustainable future.
Plastics / computers / cosmetics can be recycled. Up to 80% of waste is recycled in Dharavi.
Rag pickers earn money from the sorting and recycling of our waste.
Use of saline water on mounds of garbage would reduce the genesis of bacteria that generates methane.
Solution to traffic congestion - Mumbai
With support from the World Bank, the city recently invested in a new traffic management system.
simple system and has proved quite effective in easing the pain of Mumbai’s ever-present jams, but it certainly hasn’t eradicated them.
2017 Urban transport plan - develop infrastructure for walking, cycling or public transport.
Solution to air pollution - Mumbai
Maharashtra state government’s pollution mitigation plans seems inadequate to tackle the problem of air pollution.
Individuals are being encouraged to make personal changes by choosing to carpool or use public transport instead of using their own private vehicle. Switching over to greener fuels would be environmentally beneficial too.
reduce the amount of petroleum products currently being used.
Positives of squatter settlements redevelopment in Mumbai
Clean water piped to every home - no queue for water
Sewage pipes take away human waste - no one makes contact with this waste, reduces chance of cholera
Homes have addresses, council can collect tax, imports services
Industrial areas are away from residential areas - improves quality of life as they’re not in contact with hazardous materials
Organised wide roads provided - allows for delivery of organised waste management services, no longer live amongst waste
Negatives of squatter settlements redevelopment in Mumbai
Council can collect taxes, poor will be badly effected by this
There is little communal space, loss of sense of community
Industrial and residential areas separated, people now have to commute to work
Very small accommodation (21m^2), families broken up due to cramped conditions
People lose jobs (rag pickers)
Economic concerns of squatter settlements redevelopment in Mumbai
Maintenance cost
Apartment = less contact with customers
Small space = can’t work in the same way they used to (eg. no drying space)
Social concerns about squatter settlements redevelopment in Mumbai
Loss of community feeling
Erodes previous lifestyle
Apartment = smaller than current housing
Commercial motive
Residents only get regimes if they can prove they are legitimate residents
National slum dweller association set up to fight against thus (over 1million people in this)
Location of London
UK
South East England
Natural site advantages of London
River Thames - developed as port / trade links (Thames estuary)
North Sea allows for trade with Europe
Flat land = easy to develop on
Favourable climate (Mild)
central, on the map / near the ocean - meaning it will have the advantages of the port
National importance of London
12.5% of UKs population lives in London
800,000 people commute to London for work
22% of UKs GDP
% of people with qualifications in London is higher than most of UK
Busiest airport
Economic hub for UK
People in London have a high salary compared to rest of the UK
Global importance of London
14th largest capital city in the world
Heathrow airport = connects Europe to America
Most visited international city
Most vegetarian friendly city in the world
Large economic hub
High tourist spend (21 billion)
Hosted 3 modern Olympic Games
London universities form a large concentration of the nest universities in Europe / the world
Migration meaning
Movement of people from one place to another, usually to live
Impacts of national / international migration on growth / character of city
More diversity
Tourism
Higher working population
Bigger economic hub
Transport hub
What’s cultural mix?
Culture mix - refers to the proportion of different cultures in an area - this can be quantified
What’s multiculturalism
Multiculturalism- several distinct cultural or ethnic group within a society
London - Culture
includes racial, religious or cultural groups and determines behaviour and lifestyle
London - culture positives
It enriches huge areas of cultural life in London. Exposure to people who have different religions and different languages, cultural parties.
Different type of food and music, promotes tolerance and acceptance. Education - broader base of history / religion such as ”BLM”
London - culture challenges
Integration, they don’t all speak English properly could be seen as a racial disadvantage, communication barriers and having to hire translators for public spaces.
Having to prevent economically poorer cultural groups living i the poorest parts of the city . Segregation and isolation. £23 million is spent on translators - NHS.
Unemployment in tower hamlets is 39%, also 190,000 residents are on benefits and 55% of children receive free school meals. Life expectancy is also lower than the average in London
London - recreation + entertainment
Night Life - Covent Garden
Public art centre
Theatres - west end
Cultural - natural history
Retail - Harrods / Oxford street
Tourist Attractions - big ben/ tower bridge / London eye / Tower of London / Westminster abbey
Sports - 2012 Olympics
Music - Philemonic orchestra
London - employment opportunities
It’s a world city, the financial opportunities are the highest in London. Londoners earn 23% more than the UK average
London is more productive in terms of the goods and services that the provide than any other place in the UK
Repents 22% of the UK’s total economy, contributes the most money to the UK economy
What’s an integrated transport - London?
All the forms of transport are linked together and work together.
A quick and efficient system, such as the tube, river services, buses, tramlink, cycle hire, taxis, emirates arline. The TFL links all of the transport in London together
To what extent does London have an integrated transport system
It’s very integrated as all the types of transport are controlled by one company, the TFL. The bus / tube / river bus / tams / trains / tax / cycle hire are all linked.
The railways links to the airports (Gatwick express). London is linked to the channel tube (Europe)
What’s urban greening?
Refers to public landscaping / urban forestry projects at create mutually beneficial relationships between city dwellers and their environments
gardens / parks / lakes / rivers / canals / tree lined roads / allotments / urban forests / verges
How does London provide for urban greening?
Hyde park
Water courses
Roof top gardens
Public / private gardens
Canals
London green space overview
60% of London is open land and 47% of Greater London is green. As well as the 3,000 parks, 142 local nature reserves, 36 sites of special scientific interest, 4 UNESCO World Heritage Sites and 2 National Nature Reserves within the city’s limits, there are 3.8 million private gardens. For its size, London is one of the very greenest cities in the world
Internal factor meaning
Local internal characteristics
Eg. elderly population
External factor meaning
Outside influences, external influences on a place identity
Eg. Competition from abroad / mechanisation reduces the amount of workers
How has urban change created challenges - examples (social / economic)
Urban deprivation
Inequalities in housing
Health and employment
How has urban change created challenges - examples (environmental)
Dereliction
Building on brownfield and greenfield sites
Waste disposal
What’s urban decline
Deterioration of the inner city often caused by lack of investment and maintenance.
Usually correlates to decline in population, decreasing economic performance and unemployment.
Urban deprivation meaning
Its a Standard of living that of the majority in a particular society that involves hardships and lack of access to resources.
Places suffering from deprivation have visible differences in housing and economic opportunities
Dereliction meaning
when areas of cities are abandoned and the buildings become run down.
What’s a brownfield site
an old industrial or inner-city site that is cleared for a new building development.
Green belt meaning
land consisting of farmland, woodland and open recreational areas surrounding urban areas on which building is restricted.
Greenfield site meaning
an area of land that has not been developed previously
Advantages of building on greenfield sites
There is no need to clean up the site from previous land uses therefore it can work out cheaper.
Existing road networks are not in place, so planning is not restricted.
They are often on the edges of cities where land is cheaper.
Planners and architects have a blank canvas to work with.
More space is available for gardens.
The edge of city/countryside environment can appeal to buyers and businesses.
Sites on the edge of the city are often close to major motorways providing good access.
Advantages of building on brownfield sites
more sustainable as existing developed land is being used.
City expansion is curbed as the site is already within the city - this stops the loss of countryside and reduces journey times as the city is more compact.
Road networks already exist, as do electricity and gas networks, although these may need updating.
It is easier to gain planning permission as councils are keen to reuse the brownfield sites.
The sites are closer to the central business district for shopping and job opportunities.
Inequality in housing - London
house prices and rents are higher in London than any other part of the country. More people in London rent a house than own a hose and those that rent pat more than half their weekly pay in rent.
At the same time as those who live in poor quality, small rented accommodation there are people living in some of the most expensive properties on the planet.
Inequality in education - London
Children across london don’t get equal exam grades, but some of the schools in London’s poorest boroughs are amongst the fastest improving schools in the country.
Schools in east = lower GCSE pass rates / lower grades
Schools in West / South = higher GCSE pass rates / grades
Waste disposal - London
Free to download apps that inform people of air quality.
Cleaning up London bus fleet by making them less polluting.
Introducing congestion charge.
Tighter standards for low emission zones.
Zero municipal waste by 2025.
Reduce amount of household waste by 2030.
Recycle at least 45% of municipal waste.
cut through London’s greenhouse gas emissions through the management of London’s municipal waste.
Generate electricity from municipal waste.
Advantages of building on urban sprawl on rural urban fringe - London
Desire for rural lifestyle (housing development) / economically the land is cheaper / business follow people
What businesses need that space?
New housing developments / theme parks / golf areas / large retail centres eg, Costco or IKEA / landfill sites / country parks
Disadvantages of building on urban sprawl on rural urban fringe - London
Social - pressure on local services (schools/healthcare)
Economic - loss of farmland / house prices rise / poor planning / loss of local business
Environmental - filling of space (loss of original appeal / congestions, commutes - travelling into the central business district / loss of farmland
Features of sustainable living - water conservation (London)
Mayor of London partnered with Thames water to install over 100 drinking water fountains to recycle single use plastic bottles, and to provide free access to health tap water.
The average Londoner buys 3 bottles per week, so having these fountains may reduce this.
Features of sustainable living - energy conservation
Green infrastructure, building design
Lots of glass absorbed and retains heat
South facing aspect
Insulation
Bedroom downstairs
Solar panels
Efficient technologies / appliances use less energy
Features of sustainable living - waste recycling(London)
Less water
Recycling water in the garden / car cleaning
Collecting rainwater
Water meters
Features of sustainable living - creating green space (London)
provides a grassy area and a sports park and play areas for children which encourages people to go outside - health benefits of exercise and going outside it increases.
It maintains the amount of green space in Hulme meaning it impacts Hulme in a positive way.
There are also businesses that have benefited form Hulme park.
Houses in front of the park are more pricey if they’re closer to the park as they’re more desirable.
Also garden maintenance is needed. It is also an attraction in which people travel to go to, bringing more people into Hulme.
It also provides living space for animals and reduces pollution as they absorb CO2, it absorbs pollutants (carbon sink) and it absorbs noise and other pollutants from the air.
How urban transport strategies are used to reduce traffic congestion (London)
SMART Technology
Congestion charge
London cycling campaign
Integrated transport system
West/ South London VS East London
West + south London = Higher household income = higher life expectancy = lower proportion of people on benefits, lower proportion of children in poverty.
Eastern London = Lower household income = lower life expectancy = higher proportion of people on benefits also have higher proportion of children in poverty
Inequality in health - London
People in wealthy areas tend to live longer than people in poorer areas.
Census in 2011 showed people in poorer areas have the highest proportion of people who don’t live in good health.
Life expectancy in east London in 73years compared to 78 years in Westminster.
Employment inequality- London
Unemployment rate is 10% in London compared to 8% of the rest of the UK.
Major inequality in payment, top 10th of employees earn around 4.5 as much as the bottom tenth.
Urban sprawl meaning
describes the outward and unchecked expansion of urban land uses
Urban Rural fringe meaning
Boundary that makes the edge of an urban area / town / city
What’s BEDZED?
Beddington zero energy development
Where is BEDZED?
South London
BEDZED - energy efficiency in building design and living
Faces south - maximised amount of sunlight able to be absorbed.
Double glazing / high insulation - more heat trapped inside the home, less need for heating
BEDZED - resource use
Natural materials / renewable resources - less energy used in building process
Brownfield land - not building on greenfield (more sustainable)
Solar / wind power
BEDZED - reducing carbon footprint (energy/transport)
Timber locally sources - reduce energy used in transportation
Everything needed is inside the village - reduction on travel energy / less greenhouse gases from fuel combustion
Lots of public transport / charging points
BEDZED - water use
Hot water provided by tree waste - 45% more efficient than normal house
Rain water collection
Low flush toilets / low volume baths - less water used
Water recycling / flow restrictions
Water meters - track water usage
BEDZED - services
Village has all services - reduce energy used on transport
10 of the housings = key workers (socially sustainable)
15 of houses = most affordable rent (not exclusive - social advantage)
SMART Technology
Having car charging points
Contactless pay,ent
Police wearing cameras
Smart streetlights
Oyster cards - means one card for all public transport (80% of transport controlled by Oyster card) means it’s easy and appealing for audience
Oyster cards reduce delays by 40%
Disadvantages - need to borrow money to create well functioning system - expensive for the government
Congestion charge
Congestion charge reduces traffic levels by 27% since 2002
Cycling levels have increased by 6n% since congestion charge introduced in 2002
Has improved QOL of many people
Disadvantages - fines for not following congestion charges increases inequality as poor people find fines harder to pay than richer people.
London cycling campaign
Campaign for more cycling lanes which will encourage more people to cycle and make it safer to cycle making it more appealing meaning less cars on the road helping London reach its carbon neutral target by 2050.
Integrated transport system
All of London transport is managed by 1 company (Transport for London) making it integrated and east to use.
25% of people in London regularly use public transport.
