Urban Futures

Question 1

Explain how the global pattern of urbanisation is changing

Answer 1

ACs: Cities in Europe and North America reached the peak of their growth in the 1950s due to the baby boom after the second world war. Building of new houses led to urban sprawl and the growth of cities. Most ACs now have populations over 70% urban. The most sustained period of growth was during the industrial revolution in the late 1700s to 1800s.

EDCs and LIDCs: economic development in urban areas have driven rural-urban migration, causing younger people in rural areas to move to urban areas in search of jobs. Almost 200 million people have moved to urban areas between 2000-2010. Cities in Asia and Africa have now overtaken the earlier cities of Europe and North America.

Question 1

Explain how can we make our cities more sustainable?

Answer 1

Special computer modelling allows Singapore to funnel natural wind throughout the city. Cities have a ‘heat island effect’, cities are always warmer due to the amount of concrete and man made materials. Singapore does not need to spend as much on AC. Investing in future tech not only allows higher paying jobs, but it also encourages companies such as Airbus to go into Singapore to deliver packages automatically to people’s houses, this could also reduce congestion in roads

Underground roads and superhighways to save more space
Many Singapore housing has trees and plants on rooftops for oxygen and taking in CO2, also helps with stress

Singapore also has conducted research towards water supplies. 2 billion litres of water a day in Singapore. There are 17 storage reservoirs of freshwater in Singapore. Singapore has a desalination plant called TUAS where electrodialysis is used to remove salt from seawater, desalination is more resilient and easier to rely on. Singapore currently import half of its daily water requirements. Reverse osmosis filters, salt in sea water gets separated from the water

New research towards technology to improve resource reliance and therefore the environmental and economic sustainability. This includes Sustenir agriculture opening the world’s first vertical farm in 2012, crops can grow inside without soil. Singapore has very little land, so vertical farming is very helpful. Also new technology which 3D prints jelly which has just the right amount of nutrients we need. 93% of food is currently imported.

Question 2

What is a megacity?

Answer 2

A city with over 10 million inhabitants.

Question 3

What do AC, EDC and LIC stand for?

Answer 3

Advanced country, emerging developing country, low income country

Question 4

What percentage of people in the UK live in an Urban Area?

Answer 4

83%

Question 5

Why is London considered a global city?

Answer 5

The city’s creative energy, cultural diversity, and rich heritage serve as compelling magnets, drawing millions of visitors each year, many of whom flock to some of the globe’s most renowned museums, including the British Museum, Tate Modern, and the National Gallery. The ability that London has of attracting people to the city is what makes it a global city

Question 6

Explain the definition of Urbanisation

Answer 6

The increasing percentage of the population living in an urban area.

Question 7

What is counter urbanisation

Answer 7

The movement of people away from urban areas to rural.

Question 8

What is the definition of a world city

Answer 8

A city considered to be an important node in the global economic system and one which has iconic status and buildings, e.g. London.

Question 9

What is the definition of suburbanisation

Answer 9

A change in the nature of rural areas such that they start to resemble the suburbs.

Question 10

Push and pull factors for suburbanisation

Answer 10

Overcrowding: High population density and congestion in urban areas can be a significant push factor. Suburban areas often offer more spacious and less crowded living conditions.

High Cost of Living: The increasing cost of living in urban centres, including high housing prices, property taxes, and general expenses, may push people to seek more affordable options in the suburbs.

Traffic Congestion: Urban areas often face traffic congestion, leading to longer commuting times. Suburban living can be appealing due to the promise of shorter commutes and less time spent in traffic.

Pollution: Environmental concerns, such as air and noise pollution, can be a push factor. Suburban areas are often perceived as having cleaner and healthier environments.

Crime Rates: High crime rates in urban areas may drive people away in search of safer neighbourhoods and communities in the suburbs.

Limited Green Spaces: Lack of parks and green spaces in urban areas can be a push factor. Suburban living often offers more access to nature and recreational areas.

Pull Factors:

Better Quality of Life: Suburban areas are often associated with a better quality of life, offering quieter neighborhoods, lower crime rates, and a sense of community.

Affordable Housing: The cost of housing in suburban areas is often lower than in urban centers, making homeownership more accessible to a broader population.

Good Schools: Suburbs are frequently known for having good school systems, which can be a significant pull factor for families with children.

Lower Density: Suburban areas typically have lower population densities, providing residents with more space and a less hectic lifestyle compared to urban living.

Improved Infrastructure: Suburban areas may have newer and more extensive infrastructure, including roads, schools, and recreational facilities, making them attractive places to live.

Communal Living: Suburbs often promote a sense of community and neighbourly connections, which can be appealing to those seeking a more communal living experience.

Job Opportunities: Some suburban areas are home to business parks and commercial developments, providing job opportunities closer to residential areas and reducing the need for long commutes to urban centres.

Question 11

Push and Pull factors of urbanisation

Answer 11

Push factors: lack of job opportunities, poorer infrastructure, lack of clean water, crop failure, natural disasters, fewer services, wages are at poverty levels, increased food insecurities.

Pull factors: more transport networks, more entertainment, better access to food, better quality housing, stable government, political freedom, better healthcare, greater range of employment

Question 12

Advantages and Disadvantages of Mega Cities in LIDCs

Answer 12

Advantages: a growth of the informal sector allows local entrepreneurial talent to thrive and helps tackle unemployment. Strong community in slums, self help housing provides a solution to housing shortages. Cities usually have lower infant mortality rates, education and infrastructure is better in cities.

Disadvantages: People living in slums, tend to occupy land which is not fit for development, so they can be at risk of landslides and floods. The government rarely supports the informal sector as it avoids tax, lack of coordination makes planning of services difficult, environmental problems like water shortages and contamination, sewage disposal and air pollution. Inland migration tends to happen quicker than the pace of economic and social development.

Question 13

Describe the changing distribution of megacities since 1950

Answer 13

Mega cities: In the 1950s there were only 2 megacities, now there are over 30. Although the number of megacities is growing, they still have only 5 per cent of the world’s population present.

Question 14

Explain the consequences of constant rapid urbanisation

Answer 14

Informal sector: require little capital to setup, require few skills, labour intensive and small scale. People working in the informal sector don’t pay taxes and do not contribute to the countries GNP, the workers don’t have legal rights and would not receive advantages such as holiday or sick days.

Informal housing: usually land which is unsuitable for building, such as a dry river bed, which can easily fill with water, or unsafe lands on slopes which is prone to experiencing landslides or next to industrial activity, infrastructure is poor in these areas, electricity and water is not reliable, crime is common and disease is easily spread.

Question 15

Understand the causes and consequences of contrasting urban trends in ACs,
including suburbanisation

Answer 15

Suburbanisation: started in the late twentieth century when public transport and car ownership meant that commuters could live further out from the city centre.
Consequences: Increased congestion and pollution from commuting, buildings in the city are left vacant and these buildings may look derelict and vulnerable to vandalism. Creates a demand for out of town retail parks

Question 16

What is re-urbanisation

Answer 16

Reurbanisation refers to the movement of people back into an area that has been previously abandoned. Reurbanisation is usually a government’s initiative to counter the problem of inner city decline.

Question 17

Explain London’s importance within its region, the country, and the wider
world.

Answer 17

● Internal and international accessibility - London has great importance due to its high connectivity. It has an orbital motorway (M25) and a series of motorways linking it with the other major centres in the UK (M1 to Leeds, M4 to Bristol and the M2 to Dover). It is also the focus of the rail network with major rail termini such as Waterloo and Paddington. It has 5 international airports and the business airport of Heathrow has five terminals. London’s connectivity will soon grow further as a result of HS2 and Cross Rail. (local and regional)
● World network of financial centres - London has become the international financial centre for Europe and is one of three world financial cities alongside New York and Tokyo. Many global banks have headquarters here including HSBC and Barclays. (regional)
● A global centre of power - A study done by Mori ranked London as the most powerful city in the world, above New York in 2019. It won because across social, cultural, access, liveability and other factors it consistently performed well. It did particularly well in culture and accessibility which were key features that took it above New York. (global)
●London has become the place where TNCs prefer to locate. Of the 500 transnational companies in the UK, 271 have their headquarters in London. This provides opportunities for other business services to locate near their clients. (local and global)
● Market - London is the largest and most affluent market in the UK and therefore top international retailers have locations in London to take advantage of this market. (local)

Question 18

Describe the Patterns of national and international migration and how this is changing the
growth and character of Lagos. (what are the pull and push factors)

Answer 18

Migration has a large contribution to Lagos’ growth. In Lagos national migration is more important than international, 83% of migration is national. The top 3 states of migration are Ogun, Osun and Oyo. Many people in the rural areas of Nigeria are migrating to places such as Lagos. This is because there are a wider variety of high skilled job opportunities (tertiary sector jobs) such as finance and marketing, more teaching and nursing opportunities, drought and creeping desertification in the North. Desertification can cause there to be differences in crop yields so it’s difficult to make a profit, this forces people to go to Lagos to become more consistent with their salaries by working in higher paid jobs.

A very important social reason for growth is natural increase - in Lagos the fertility rate is 3.5, which is above replacement level (2.1) therefore there is significant growth just through natural increase. The larger the population the more people are contributing to the economy. Lagos also has a very young population, so due to natural increase the population will grow even more. By 2050 Nigeria will have twice the population it has today, more than half will live in cities, and about 60% of them will be under 25, this means there will be a large working population.

The rapid growth of Lagos has led to a significant increase in population density, leading to overcrowding, increased crime rates, and the spread of diseases. The provision of essential services such as healthcare, education, and housing has become inadequate, leading to a decline in the quality of life of many Lagos residents. Also there are some economic impacts: Lagos has become an economic hub, attracting people from all over Nigeria and the world. While this has led to an increase in employment opportunities, it has also resulted in income inequality, as many people are unable to access well-paying jobs. The city’s infrastructure has also struggled to keep up with the demand for services, leading to issues such as traffic congestion, which can impact businesses and the economy negatively. Lagos’ technology is also very far behind many other global cities.

Environmental impacts: The rapid growth of Lagos has led to increased pressure on the city’s environment, resulting in issues such as air pollution, poor waste management, and deforestation. The city’s rapid development has also led to the destruction of wetlands and other natural habitats, impacting biodiversity and contributing to climate change. Political impacts: The rapid growth of Lagos has had significant political implications, including the need for effective governance and leadership. Inadequate planning and governance have led to issues such as inadequate infrastructure, poor housing, and traffic congestion, which have negatively impacted the quality of life of many Lagos residents. The government also refuses to build clean water sources in slums as the housing is considered as illegal.

Overall, the most significant impact of the rapid growth of Lagos is arguably the social impact, as it affects the quality of life of a significant portion of the city’s residents. However, the other impacts are also significant and cannot be overlooked, as they have far-reaching consequences for the city and its inhabitants.

Question 19

How important is Lagos? To understand its importance at a regional, national and global level.

Answer 19

Location and importance
Lagos is the financial and cultural hub of Nigeria. It is found in the south west of Nigeria, on the coast where it meets the Gulf of Guinea. Nigeria is found in North Western Africa and is bordered by West Benin, Niger, Chad and Cameroon.

Lagos is one of the fastest growing cities in the world, with a current population of just under 16 million, this is double what the population was in 2000.

Importance to the region, country and wider world
The city holds much national, regional and some international significance. These include:
● 90% of all companies in Nigeria chose to locate their HQ in Lagos.
● As one of the fastest growing and wealthiest cities in Africa, Lagos is seen as a key investment site for foreign companies and investors, such as Nestle and Shell. Nigeria, whilst currently going through
political turmoil, has also been seen as one of the more stable African nations for investment.
● Techstars, one of the most influential start-up accelerators in Africa, announced their HQ would be based in Lagos, from 2022.
“Lagos has built a successful startup ecosystem that merits more global exposure, investments and resources, and we see extraordinary potential in the market,” Techstars manager said in a press release sent to TechCabal.
● Lagos is one of Africa’s economic hubs, its GDP alone is larger than that of West African neighbours Niger, Benin, Togo, Chad, Sierra Leone, Liberia and the Gambia put together. This makes it a big attraction to foreign workers.

Question 20

Explain the contemporary challenges posed in London (6)

Answer 20

With a rapidly growing population due to rapid urbanisation, a major challenge London faces is pollution. As the population increases, the amount of cars on the road also increases, which has an overwhelming effect on air quality. Approximately 50% of air pollution in London is caused by transport on roads. Large concentrations of sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide can cause serious health issues - nearly 10,000 people living in London die prematurely each year as a result of toxic gases in the air, therefore clearly pollution is a major problem London faces.

Another major issue facing London is the housing crisis. As the population of the city continues to grow, the demand for homes is surpassing the city’s supply. London would have to build 66,000 new homes each year to meet its growing need, which is a target London has not met. The supply and demand have led to rental and housing prices to increase substantially, forcing suburbanisation for many people, where rent is cheaper. People living farther from their jobs weakens the economic value of the city + widens inequality.

Question 21

Evaluate how Lagos is meeting one of the challenges it faces (8)

Answer 21

A major challenge that Lagos faces is waste in Makoko slum. One attempt at meeting this challenge was the introduction of a company called ‘Wecyclers’. The company collects recyclable materials from households and small businesses in low-income neighbourhoods and then sells these materials to recycling companies. This solution is not only environmentally sustainable but also economically sustainable.

In terms of long-term progress, Wecyclers has shown steady growth since its founding in 2012. The company has expanded its operations to new neighbourhoods and has increased its capacity to collect and process more recyclable materials. This growth indicates that Wecyclers has the potential to continue making progress in the future, and grow even more as a company, provided it can maintain its current momentum.

Whilst Wecyclers has been successful at being able to secure funding from various sources, including grants, corporate partnerships, and investments, the long-term economic sustainability of Wecyclers will depend on its ability to scale its operations and generate sufficient revenue to cover its costs and generate profits.

In terms of environmental sustainability, Wecyclers is making a positive impact by diverting waste from landfills and reducing the amount of pollution caused by waste disposal. However at the moment, Wecyclers only takes the recyclable waste, it is not having an impact on food waste and other waste, which is a very big issue.

Overall, while Wecyclers faces challenges in terms of long-term economic sustainability, the company has made significant progress in addressing waste management challenges in Nigeria and has the potential to continue making a positive impact in the future. It encourages people to have a positive attitude (nudge theory) additionally more jobs were created, particularly creating employment in slums.

Question 22

Investigate the contemporary challenges that affect life in the LIDC or EDC city,
such as squatter settlements, informal sector jobs, health or waste disposal.

Answer 22

The major problem in Lagos is the growth of squatter settlements also known as slums. 65 percent of the people living in Lagos are urban poor who live in slums. Many that migrate to urban areas often have limited funds due to low pay in jobs in farming (often subsistence) which means many come from poverty. They therefore cannot afford to move into high priced formal accommodation and thus move into the much cheaper slums. These then grow to meet the growing demand from the rural to urban migration stream.

Another major problem is the unaffordable housing prices in Lagos. When people migrate to the city they may feel they will make huge sums quickly, however, formal housing in Lagos is very expensive. Although there have been significant increases in the number of high rise flats and swanky apartments this is for a small minority of wealthy Nigerians and migrants. Therefore due to the majority of Lagos’ housing being directed towards wealthy people, this therefore shows Lagos’ poor economic sustainability.

The saturated job market is also a major problem Lagos faces. Over 70% of the population of Lagos live in informal settlements. People often end up living in the slums longer than anticipated meaning the population living in slums grows rather than being transient. The government cannot keep up with the demand for new housing so there is not enough formal accommodation for people to move into. Informal, unregulated settlements are built which develop the slums. Also this lack of supply and the increase in demand for formal housing drives up rents and housing prices making it even more difficult.

A contemporary challenge Lagos faces it the lack of effective waste management. In Makoko slum, which sits on the water, residents cannot access clean water easily and have no access to basic amenities like sewage systems. Rubbish is also not formally collected in slums. This therefore causes numerous problems, from the burning of rubbish which creates toxic fumes, to the spread of diseases like cholera and malaria due to the blocking of waterways and creation of stagnant pools.

Question 23

Explain the causes of rapid urbanisation in LIDCs.

Answer 23

Rural to urban migration: People moving from rural areas to urban areas
Internal growth: When people who have moved into the cities have lots of children

Question 24

Describe the push and pull factors of rural-urban migration and internal growth.

Answer 24

Push factors: Few services, such as education and health care, poorer infrastructure thus poorer electricity and power supplies, crop failure (over 70% of Nigeria’s population is engaged in farming), lack of job opportunities, wages are at poverty levels at many LIDC countries.

Pull factors: Greater range of employment with higher wages and higher skilled jobs, better health care and education, better-quality infrastructure, more transport networks.

Internal growth: Once people have arrived in the city and found employment and housing, they tend to have children. This increase in birth rate can result in a rapid rate of population growth, particularly in LIDCs where there is a large, youthful population.

Question 25

• Explore the ways of life in Lagos, such as culture, ethnicity, housing, leisure
  and consumption

Answer 25

● Rapid growth of the city has seen significant deforestation and the city has expanded with the little regulation.
● New developments including Lagos’ huge newly created island Eko Atlantic, built around a marina and made for the super rich. Rapid growth in high end shops and high rise expensive flats have come as those lucky enough to benefit from Nigeria’s oil wealth, tech boom and Nollywood flash their cash. However, this is set against 60% of the population of Lagos still living in informal settlements, high levels of poverty and issues with unemployment.
● Housing conditions for some have significantly improved, many benefit from new housing, shopping malls and leisure facilities but this is not the majority of the population.
● The city is particularly notable for its transformation over the past 20 years, from a place which in the late 90s was beyond state control and regarded as dangerous, to a new world destination with a fledgling tourist industry, which is also attracting back the Nigerian diaspora.
●New cultural features are being added, there is a long history of celebrating music and dance, with informal dance parties breaking out in the streets regularly (owambe parties and bus parties) - these are now being harnessed for tourism with the annual One Lagos Fiesta.
● With art/culture we now see the new Lagos Museum open, five new theatres being built and the regeneration of the Onikan area as a cultural hub.

Question 26

Understand the causes and consequences of contrasting urban trends in ACs,
including counter-urbanisation

Answer 26

Counter urbanisation:
causes: people moving out of the city tend to be the most affluent, tend to be those with young children who think that the countryside would be a better place to bring them up.
Push factors from the city: e.g traffic congestion, higher cost of living, perception of high crime, poor air quality
Main pull factor: rural idyll, better road and rail links allow people to live further away from their place at work, businesses with offices are now moving to more rural locations where the land prices are cheaper and the quality of life for workers are better.
Consequences: Counter-urbanisation causes dormitory villages where residences work in the city during the day, and only return to their rural homes in the evenings, house prices increase rapidly in relatively rural areas just outside of urban centres such as Hemel Hempstead, long term residence of villages fear that the character is changing, local people can be priced out of the market as wealthier city people buy up and renovate old houses raising the profile of the settlement and subsequently the cost of the properties (this is gentrification).

Question 27

Understand the causes and consequences of contrasting urban trends in ACs,
including re-urbanisation.

Answer 27

Re-urbanisation: Causes: people are returning to live in the city particularly in inner city areas, government initiatives encourage people and businesses’ back into the city; for example staff may be paid a premium for new jobs in deprived areas. Grants have been available to retailers to take on derelict buildings. Young people, moving to the city for university and to find work, need housing close to amenities and institutions. Gentrification has also helped to revive inner city areas. With better health care in the cities, older people who have moved to rural areas when they retired may seek to return to the city for better access to hospitals.
Consequences: the redevelopment of inner city urban areas creates new jobs and homes which attracts people from outside to move there. There can be a lack of affordable housing which can lead to expensive new apartments being left empty. Increase in traffic congestion due to increased number of residents. The process of gentrification might mean that working class people are unable to buy or rent property in the city.

Question 28

Explore the ways of life in the city, such as culture, ethnicity, housing, leisure and consumption.

Answer 28

The character of London has changed to highlight the diversity of immigrants coming in. London is seen as a tolerant and welcoming society which has supported more migrants coming in and has brought a wide range of cultural benefits such as borough market which have diverse food offerings influenced by different ethnic groups. Different waves of migrants bring new additions each time. Therefore, due to the nature of migration we often get concentrations of certain nationalities in particular areas.

Why? Because when people migrate they often initially look for somewhere that feels
more familiar, this may be through family or friendship ties (chain migration) or an area with
familiar food shops, language, religion, which makes the transition to a new country slightly
easier. For example 1/3 of the population in New Malden are Korean. New Malden is known as Korea town in London and attracts many people of the Korean ethnic group to migrate to somewhere that feels familiar to their home town.

Question 29

Describe the patterns of national and international migration and how this is changing the
growth and character of an AC city

Answer 29

London has also been greatly affected by international migration. The large number of financial and knowledge-based job opportunities has attracted people from elsewhere in the UK and the rest of the world. In 2011 38% of London’s
population were born abroad. Showing the importance of international migration towards London’s population. International migration is what is causing the growth of London - without it, domestic net migration is negative so London would be getting smaller. Additionally many of these migrants are young economically active or students which reduces the average age of the city in comparison to the national average.

Patterns:
London is highly ethnically diverse: people from the Black, Asian, Mixed and Other ethnic groups were more likely to live in London than any other region of the UK, with 58.6% of black people in the UK living in London. Migration into London however is highly varied: Out of all the boroughs, 22 have seen
negative net migration in 2018/19. While on the other hand, Camden has experienced positive net migration with over 6000 people moving into the borough in the same year.