UPCAT General Science Flashcards
What is the suffix for alkane compounds?
-ane
Define alkyl groups in alkanes.
Alkyl groups are side-chains derived by removing one hydrogen atom from alkanes.
How are alkyl groups named?
By changing the -ane ending of the parent alkane to -yl.
What do you do in step 1 of naming alkanes?
Locate the parent chain by finding the longest continuous chain.
How do you handle two chains of equal length in naming alkanes?
Choose the one with more branch points as the parent chain.
Explain step 2 in naming alkanes.
Number the carbon atoms in the parent chain for the lowest position numbers of substituents.
What do you do in step 3 of naming alkanes?
Identify substituents and the carbon atoms they are attached to.
How do you name a compound in step 4 of alkane naming?
Arrange substituents alphabetically with position numbers before the parent name.
When do you use prefixes di-, tri-, tetra- in alkane naming?
When the same alkyl group occurs more than once as a substituent.
How are prefixes such as cyclo, neo- treated in alphabetizing substituents?
They are included in alphabetizing; use hyphens to separate prefixes.
What are the components of a nucleotide?
Nitrogenous base, sugar moiety, phosphate group
Differentiate between monosaccharides and disaccharides.
Monosaccharides have one unit, disaccharides have two units of monosaccharide.
Explain the role of cellulose in plants.
Cellulose provides a supporting framework for plants.
What are scalar quantities in physics?
Quantities expressed by magnitude only, e.g., mass, time.
Define vector quantities in physics.
Quantities expressed by magnitude and direction, e.g., force, velocity.
What is a resultant vector?
The sum/difference of two or more vectors with the same effect.
What is the main function of stomates in a leaf?
Stomates serve as entry points for carbon dioxide and exits for water vapor.
What happens to guard cells when water moves out of them?
Guard cells become flaccid, and the stomal pore closes.
How does a plant suffer if transpiration is faster than root water absorption?
Plant tissues suffer from water deficit, causing the plant to wilt.
Define Photosynthesis using the given equation?
Photosynthesis is: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O -> C6H12O12 + 6 O2.
Explain Respiration using the given equation.
Respiration is: C6H12O12 + 6 O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O.
What is Plant Taxonomy and its key components?
Plant Taxonomy is the classification, nomenclature, and identification of plants based on hierarchical categories known as taxa.
Describe the hierarchy of taxa in Plant Taxonomy.
Taxa are arranged hierarchically from species to genus to family and finally to the kingdom.
What is the smallest taxonomic unit in Plant Taxonomy?
The smallest taxonomic unit is the species.
What is the scientific name of a plant composed of?
A plant’s scientific name is a binomial, consisting of a genus name and a specific epithet.
What is Genetics and its main focus?
Genetics is the study of heredity and variation, focusing on traits passed down through generations.
Explain the process involved in heredity and variation according to Genetics.
Cell division plays a significant role in heredity and variation, especially in passing down genetic information.
Define Dominant Allele in Genetics terms.
Dominant Allele is an alternative trait that is expressed in the phenotype.
Explain the Law of Dominance in Genetics.
The Law of Dominance states that only dominant alleles are expressed in the phenotype.
What is law of Incomplete Dominance in Genetics?
The Law of Incomplete Dominance states that two alleles are incompletely expressed, resulting in a blended trait.
What is the genotype of the F1 progeny in complete dominance?
Heterozygous (Rr)
In complete dominance, what is the phenotype of the F1 progeny with the dominant allele R?
Round
Define complete dominance in terms of gene expression.
One allele completely masks the expression of the other.
Explain the genotypes of the parents involved in a testcross to determine F1 heterozygosity.
Homozygous recessive (rr) and heterozygous (Rr)
What is the genotypic ratio resulting from a testcross between F1 (Rr) and homozygous recessive (rr) parents?
1 Rr : 1 rr
In a dihybrid cross, how do gene pairs segregate during meiosis?
Independently of each other.
What ratio did Mendel observe in the F2 generation of his dihybrid cross?
9:3:3:1 (round yellow : wrinkled yellow : round green : wrinkled green)
What method is used to determine genotypic ratios in the F2 progeny?
Punnett Square or Checkerboard method.
Explain the molecular composition of chromosomes in terms of genes.
Chromosomes carry genes which are fragments of DNA.
What is the role of DNA in transferring biological information?
DNA transmits information from parent cells to daughter cells and between generations.
Describe the process of replication in terms of DNA molecules.
Replication creates two identical DNA molecules from a parent DNA.
What general processes does the central dogma of molecular biology consist of?
Replication, transcription, and translation.
How is information transferred from DNA to proteins?
Through transcription and translation processes.
What are the three components of the central dogma of molecular biology?
DNA, RNA, and Proteins.
What term describes changes in genetic materials that are heritable?
Mutation.
Define deletion in terms of genetic materials.
Refers to removal of a segment of base pairs.
What are the Group 1 elements known as?
Alkali metals
Which group includes elements like calcium and magnesium?
Group 2 - Alkaline earth metals
Which group contains elements such as chlorine and fluorine?
Group 17 - Halogens
What do periods represent in the periodic table?
Horizontal rows
What pattern or trend is repeated in elements belonging to a period?
Properties show a repeated trend in the next period
Which group forms ions with a +1 charge?
Group 1
What is the charge of ions formed by elements in Group 16?
-2
Which group typically forms ions with a +3 charge?
Group 13
Why do noble gases usually not form ions?
They are generally stable with full valence electron shells
How many elements are gases at room temperature?
11
Name the four elements that are liquids at 25°C.
Hg, Br, Ga, Cs
What is the expected state of Francium (Fr) if prepared in large quantities?
Liquid
Define atomic size or radius in terms of a period (left to right).
Decreasing
How does ionization energy change down a group (top to bottom)?
Decreasing
What property decreases as you move across a period from left to right?
Cation size
Describe the trend in metallic character down a group.
Increasing
What does electronegativity indicate as you move across a period?
Increases
Explain the concept of covalent radius.
Half the distance between identical atoms in a covalent bond
How is metallic radius defined in a solid metal?
Half the distance between atoms in contact in the crystalline solid
What is the definition of ionization energy?
Energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion
Define affinity for electrons in terms of an atom or ion.
Tendency to attract additional electrons
What does electronegativity measure in relation to shared electrons?
Attraction of an atom for shared electrons
How do metals typically react with oxygen gas?
Forming basic oxides in water
Give an example of a common binary covalent compound.
H2O (Water)
What is the naming rule for binary covalent compounds regarding metallic elements?
Name the more metallic element first
What are the three quantum numbers describing an electron’s orbital?
The three quantum numbers are n, l, and ml.
How many electrons can an orbital hold and what must their spins be?
An orbital can hold 2 electrons with opposite spins.
What is the principal quantum number (n) and what positive values can it take?
The principal quantum number (n) represents the main energy level and can take values of 1, 2, 3, and so on.
How does the size of an orbital change as the principal quantum number (n) increases?
As n increases, the orbital becomes larger.
What is the azimuthal quantum number (l) and its possible values?
The azimuthal quantum number (l) relates to the shape of the orbital and ranges from 0 to n-1 for each n.
Explain the relation between l values and orbital shapes using the letter designations.
The values of l correspond to different orbital shapes: 0-s, 1-p, 2-d, 3-f.
What is the magnetic quantum number (ml) and its possible values?
The magnetic quantum number (ml) ranges from -l to l, including zero.
Describe the concept of degenerate orbitals.
Degenerate orbitals are orbitals that have the same energy levels.
What is the electron spin quantum number (ms) and its possible values?
The electron spin quantum number (ms) can be +1/2 or -1/2.
Explain the Pauli Exclusion Principle.
The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of quantum numbers.
Define electronic configuration and ground state electronic configuration.
Electronic configuration describes how electrons are arranged in an atom, with ground state being the lowest energy arrangement.
What is the Aufbau Principle and how does it determine electron filling order?
The Aufbau Principle states that orbitals are filled in order of increasing energy, following the (n+l) rule.
Explain Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity and its application in electron arrangement.
Hund’s Rule states that electrons singly occupy degenerate orbitals before pairing, maximizing the number of like spins.
What are the key points to remember when writing electronic configurations?
Remember the Aufbau Principle and Hund’s Rule, filling orbitals in order of increasing energy and maximizing like spins in degenerate orbitals.
Summarize Dobereiner’s Law of Triads and its significance in early classifications.
Dobereiner’s Law suggested that the average combining weight of elements in a triad was the central member’s value.
Explain John Newlands’ Law of Octaves and its limitations.
Newlands’ Law stated that every eighth element had similar properties, although some positions were forced and didn’t accommodate all elements.
Describe Meyer’s and Mendeleev’s contributions to the development of the periodic table.
Meyer’s Atomic Volume Curve and Mendeleev’s Periodic Law laid the groundwork for the modern periodic table by observing periodic trends and predicting new elements.
What is the Modern Periodic Law and how does it relate to elements?
The Modern Periodic Law states that the properties of elements are functions of their atomic numbers, guiding their arrangement in the periodic table.
Explain the concept of groups in the periodic table.
Groups in the periodic table are vertical columns where elements have similar properties.
What is the formula for displacement under constant velocity?
Δx = vt
Calculate the displacement when v = 20m/s and t = 2s.
Δx = 40m
Define Uniform Accelerated Motion.
Motion with constant acceleration.
What are the variables used in Uniform Accelerated Motion?
Vf, Vo, a, t, X, Xo
Find the acceleration of a cyclist given Vf = 4m/s, Vo = 2m/s, and t = 2s.
Acceleration = 1 m/s^2
Explain Freefall motion.
One-dimensional motion influenced only by gravity (-9.8m/s^2).
What is the gravitational acceleration in Freefall?
g = -9.8m/s^2
Calculate the velocity of a ball after 5 seconds of freefall.
Vf = -49m/s
How far does a mango fall after 0.5 seconds of freefall?
ΔY = -19.6m
Define Projectile Motion.
Curved motion influenced by gravity, a combination of uniform motion, and freefall.
What are the conditions of Projectile Motion throughout the flight?
Neglecting air resistance, horizontal and vertical motions are independent, and more.
Where is a stone after 2 seconds with Vx = 10m/s, dy = 200m?
Find dx after 2s.
When does a stone hit the ground after being thrown from a tower?
Time to hit the ground.
What is the stone’s speed just before hitting the ground?
Speed before impact.
What distinguishes plant cells from fungal and animal cells?
Presence of cellulosic cell walls, plastids, and large vacuoles.
What are ergastic substances found in plant cells?
Non-living inclusions like crystals and starch.
Name the three major plant cell types.
Parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma.
Describe the characteristics of parenchyma cells.
Usually large, thin-walled, and extremely variable in shape.
What differentiates collenchyma cells from other plant cell types?
Primary cell walls thickened irregularly by cellulose and pectin.
How are sclerenchyma cells characterized?
Thick primary cell wall with heavy lignified depositions.
What are meristematic tissues composed of?
Immature cells and regions of active cell division.
Name the three types of permanent plant tissues.
Epidermis, periderm, and vascular tissues (xylem and phloem).
What is the function of xylem in plants?
Transport water and minerals upward from the roots.
What is the primary function of phloem in plants?
Transport food materials throughout the plant.
Describe the characteristics of a root in plants.
Typically underground, serves for anchorage, and water absorption.
Differentiate between fibrous and taproot systems.
Fibrous is found in monocotyledons, taproot in dicotyledons.
What distinguishes a stem by the presence of?
Nodes where leaves are born and internodes between nodes.
What functions do leaves serve in a plant?
Photosynthesis and transpiration.
What gives leaves their green color?
Chlorophyll.
What is the main function of a flower according to the text?
Representing the reproductive structure of an angiosperm.
Describe what a fruit is in the context of a plant.
Ripened ovary protecting and dispersing seeds.
What processes precede fruit development in plants?
Pollination and fertilization.
Where does photosynthesis primarily take place in plants?
Chloroplasts in the leaves.
Explain the concept of transpiration in plants.
Loss of water in vapor form through stomates on leaf surfaces.
Define erosion and lithification.
Erosion is the wearing away of the earth’s surface. Lithification is the process of turning sediment into rock.
Explain the difference between weather and climate.
Weather refers to daily atmospheric conditions, while climate describes long-term temperature and precipitation patterns.
List the gases found in the atmosphere and their percentages.
Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Other gases (water vapor, CO2, O3)
Describe the layers of the atmosphere and their characteristics.
Troposphere (lowest temperature, where life exists), Stratosphere (contains ozone), Mesosphere, Ionosphere, Exosphere
What causes the movement of air known as winds?
Uneven temperature and pressure in the atmosphere.
Explain the definition of Ecology.
Ecology is the study of how living things interact with their environment.
Differentiate between biotic and abiotic ecological factors.
Biotic factors are living, while abiotic factors are nonliving but essential to organisms.
Define Population, Community, Ecosystem, and Biomes.
Population - group of same species, Community - different populations together, Ecosystem - living things interacting with environment, Biomes - area with climate-based communities.
Discuss the probable origin of the solar system according to the Nebular Theory.
The solar system originated from a rotating gas and dust cloud composed of hydrogen, helium, and heavier elements.
Explain the differences between the Ptolemaic Theory and the Copernican Theory.
Ptolemaic Theory: Earth stationary, planets revolve around it. Copernican Theory: Sun at center, planets revolve around the sun.
Name and describe the characteristics of the different planets in our solar system.
Mercury - rocky, cratered; Venus - thick cloud cover; Earth - liquid water, life; Mars - polar ice caps, dominant volcanoes; Jupiter - Great red spots; Saturn - many rings; Uranus - Rotates on the side; Neptune - Great dark spot.
Differentiate between asteroids, meteoroids, and comets.
Asteroids - objects smaller than planets. Meteoroids - smaller than asteroids. Comets - frozen materials and rocky bits.
Define Inertia.
Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist a change in its state of motion.
What is the formula for momentum?
p = mv, where p is momentum, m is mass, and v is velocity.
State Newton’s Third Law of Motion.
Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts an equal and opposite force.
Explain the Law of Conservation of Momentum.
The total momentum of an isolated system remains constant if no external forces act on it.
What determines the weight of an object?
Weight is the force acted upon an object due to gravity.
What is impulse in physics?
Impulse is a vector quantity equal to the product of force and time and is associated with a change in momentum.
State Newton’s Second Law of Motion.
The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass.
What is the naming convention for oxyacids ending in -ate?
Name of the form ic acid (e.g. sulfate -> sulfuric acid).
Provide an example of an oxyanion ending in -ite and its corresponding oxyacid name.
Example: SO32- sulfite, oxyacid: H2SO3 sulfurous acid.
List the names of some common polyatomic anions.
Including Hydroxide, Nitrate, Peroxide, Nitrite, Cyanide, Acetate, Azide, Chromate.
State the stoichiometry concept for balancing chemical equations.
Use correct formulas, adjust coefficients (not subscripts), balance elemental forms, H, and O last.
Define Stoichiometry in chemical reactions.
Quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
Explain the Mole Method in stoichiometry.
Interpret stoichiometric coefficients as the number of moles of each substance.
How is molar mass defined in chemistry?
Mass in grams of 1 mole of a substance, numerically equal to atomic mass.
State the ways of expressing the mole in chemistry.
By number of particles, mass (using molar mass), by volume (using molar volume at STP).
What is the percentage composition of a compound based on weight?
Percentage of each element’s weight in 100g of the compound.
Define Empirical Formula in chemistry.
Formula with lowest whole number subscripts showing compound composition.
Define molarity.
Molarity is moles of solute per liter of solution.
What is the formula for mass percent or weight percent?
(g solute/g solution) x 100%
Explain the concept of supersaturation in solutions.
Supersaturation occurs when a solution contains more solute than it should at a given temperature.
What is the formula for mole fraction?
Mole fraction, X = moles of a component / moles of solution = moles solute / (moles of solute + moles of solvent)
How is molality defined?
Molality (m) is moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
How does pressure affect the solubility of gases in liquids?
Higher pressure leads to higher solubility of gases in liquids.
Explain the relationship between temperature and solubility for solid solutes and liquid solvents.
For endothermic dissolutions, higher temperature increases solubility; for exothermic dissolutions, higher temperature decreases solubility.
Describe how dilution is achieved in solutions.
Dilution is prepared by adding more solvent to a concentrated solution, following the formula M1V1 = M2V2.
Define colligative properties of solutions.
Colligative properties depend on the amount of solute, not the nature of the solute, including vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure.
What is osmotic pressure, and how is it calculated?
Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to stop osmosis, calculated as π = MRT (where π = osmotic pressure, M = molarity, R = gas constant, T = temperature in Kelvin).
According to the Arrhenius definition, how are acids and bases defined?
Acids increase [H+] and bases increase [OH-] when dissolved in water.
Explain the Bronsted-Lowry definitions of acids and bases.
Acids are proton donors, bases are proton acceptors according to Bronsted-Lowry definitions.
What are monoprotic and polyprotic acids?
Monoprotic acids donate 1 mole of H+ per mole of acid, whereas polyprotic acids donate more than 1 mole of H+ per mole of acid.
Define Scientific Method step 3.
Formulating a hypothesis.
What is the Independent Variable?
Variable changed by the experimenter.
Explain Control group.
Opposite of Experimental group.
What is the purpose of a hypothesis?
To propose the answer to a scientific question.
Describe a Scientific law.
A description of a natural occurrence observed multiple times.
Explain the purpose of a Model in science.
Help visualize occurrences and unobservable objects.
What system is used in scientific measurements?
Metric system.
What does SI stand for in measurements?
International System of Units.
How do you calculate significant digits in a measurement?
Sum of certain digits + one certain digit (0 or 5).
What are the base quantities in SI units?
Mass, Length, Time, Amount of Substance, Temperature, Electric current, Luminous intensity.
Explain Lithosphere.
Solid part and largest portion of the earth.
Define Hydrosphere.
Liquid part covering about 71% of the earth’s surface.
Describe Metamorphic rocks.
Rocks changed due to heat and pressure.
What are Sedimentary rocks formed from?
Deposited fragments or particles of other rocks.
What is the term for the mass of blastomeres forming a hollow fluid-filled cavity?
Blastocoel
In frogs, what are the large cells below the blastocoel called?
Macromeres
What are the two distinct cell types in a blastocyst?
Inner cell mass and trophoblast
What do the extra-embryonic membranes amnion and chorion arise from?
Trophoblast
What term describes the stage of embryonic development where extensive cell movements rearrange cells?
Gastrulation
Which germ layer gives rise to the organs of the circulatory system?
Mesoderm
What does the ectoderm give rise to in the developing embryo?
Epidermis, sense organs, and nervous system
Which germ layer gives rise to the organs of the digestive system?
Endoderm
What is a key event during neurulation?
Formation of the neural tube
What do the early stages of the brain formation involve?
Neural tube and three brain regions
What is the primary concept in ecology and the most important functional unit?
Ecosystem
What does ecology predominantly study in relation to organisms?
Relationship with the environment
Ecosystems include which elements that influence one another?
Plants, animals, and physical environment
What happens during a solar eclipse?
The moon covers the sun from the Earth’s view.
Describe a lunar eclipse.
The sun covers the moon during a lunar eclipse.
Define scientific method.
A systematic process of gaining information.
Explain the role of the independent variable in an experiment.
It is the variable changed by the experimenter.
What is weathering?
A process that breaks rocks into smaller pieces.
Describe the greenhouse effect.
Process where infrared radiation is absorbed by water vapor and carbon dioxide.
What are metamorphic rocks?
Rocks that change constitution due to pressure and heat.
Explain the concept of hypothesis.
An educated guess made for scientific investigation.
Define control group in an experiment.
Sample group that doesn’t receive treatment.
Calculate the equivalent volume of 10,000 L of air in cubic millimeters.
10,000,000,000 cubic millimeters.
How many grams of tar does a person consume in a week if they smoke 20 cigarette sticks containing 40 mg tar each?
5.6 grams of tar.
What is the distance in kilometers to the nearest star to the sun if it is 2.52 x 10^13 miles away?
4.05 x 10^13 kilometers.
Differentiate between revolution and rotation.
Rotation is spinning on an axis, while revolution is orbiting.
Explain the lack of atmosphere on Mercury compared to Earth.
Mercury’s lack of atmosphere may be due to its small size.
Define biology.
The study of living systems and life processes.
Define standard cell potential.
Standard cell potential is the voltage associated with a cell under standard conditions.
Explain the relationship between energy, charge, and cell potential.
Energy (J) = charge (C) x cell potential (V)
What happens when E0 cell is positive in a reaction?
A positive E0 cell indicates a spontaneous process.
How are reactants and products affected in terms of ΔGo at equilibrium?
ΔGo = 0 at equilibrium
State the relationship between reduction potential and tendency to undergo reduction.
Higher reduction potential implies a higher tendency to undergo reduction.
Explain the function of an electrolytic cell.
An electrolytic cell uses electrical energy to cause a non-spontaneous chemical reaction.
What occurs at the anode in an electrolytic cell?
Oxidation occurs at the anode.
Describe the process at the cathode in an electrolytic cell.
Reduction occurs at the cathode.
Explain the flow of electrons in an electrolytic cell.
Electrons flow from the anode to the cathode.
Define corrosion in the context of chemistry.
Corrosion is the conversion of metal to its metal oxide.
What is the study of carbon and its compounds known as?
Organic chemistry.
Differentiate between alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes based on their bonds.
Alkanes have all single bonds, alkenes have a double bond, and alkynes have a triple bond.
What distinguishes aromatic compounds from aliphatic compounds?
Aromatic compounds are cyclic derivatives while aliphatic compounds are open-chain.
Name three oxygen-containing organic compounds.
Alcohols, ethers, and carboxylic acids.
Explain the IUPAC system in naming alkanes.
The IUPAC system names alkanes based on the number of carbon atoms in the chain.
What does the term ‘HYPERVALENT ATOM’ refer to?
An atom that could accommodate more than the octet due to low-lying d-orbitals.
Define ‘Resonance’ in the context of Lewis Structures.
The use of two or more Lewis Structures to represent a molecule or ion.
How is the ‘true structure’ of a molecule determined in Resonance?
It is the average or the ‘hybrid’ of the resonance structures.
What is ‘Formal Charge’ used for in evaluating Lewis structures?
To evaluate non-equivalent Lewis structures by comparing valence electrons, nonbonding electrons, and bonds.
Explain the concept of ‘VSEPR Theory’.
It determines molecular geometry by minimizing electron pair repulsions.
What are the steps for using the VSEPR Theory?
- Draw Lewis structure, 2. Count electron pairs, 3. Arrange to minimize repulsions, 4. Determine positions of atoms.
What is the governing principle behind the ‘Geometry or Shape of Molecules’?
It is governed by the VSEPR Theory which minimizes electron pair repulsions.
What is the structure of a molecule with the notation ‘AX2E2’?
It is a Bent or V-shaped molecule which is polar.
When do molecules exhibit bond polarity?
Bond polarity results from a net dipole moment in a molecule.
What type of forces are Interactions among molecules according to IMFA?
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction (IMFA) are interactions between molecules (not within).
Explain ‘London Dispersion Forces’ in terms of intermolecular forces.
They are relatively weak forces among noble gas atoms and non-polar molecules.
What is ‘Polarizability’ in the context of London Dispersion Forces?
It is the ease with which a dipole can be induced in an atom or molecule.
Describe ‘Dipole-dipole Forces’.
They are exhibited by polar molecules and are stronger than London Dispersion Forces.
Define Kw in terms of [H3O+] and [OH-].
[H3O+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10^-14
What is the formula for calculating pH?
pH = -log [H3O+]
List some examples of strong acids.
HCl, HBr, HI, HClO4, HNO3
According to Lewis’s definition, what is an acid?
A substance that can accept an e- pair
Explain the concept of Titration.
Gradually adding one solution to another until complete reaction.
What is the Henderson-Hasselbach equation used for?
Calculating pH of a buffer solution
Describe Chemical Equilibrium.
State where forward and backward reactions occur at equal rates.
What does the equilibrium constant Keq indicate?
The extent of a chemical reaction at equilibrium
State Le Chatelier’s Principle.
Equilibrium shifts to counteract imposed changes.
How does adding a reactant affect equilibrium?
Increases concentration, shifts equilibrium
Define a compound in chemistry.
A compound is two or more elements chemically combined in a definite proportion.
What are the structural units in ionic compounds?
The structural units in ionic compounds are cations and anions.
Explain the electrical conductivity of ionic compounds in their solid state.
In their solid state, ionic compounds are non-conducting.
Describe the properties of covalent molecular compounds.
Covalent molecular compounds have low melting points and are non-conducting.
What type of structural units occupy the lattice points in covalent network substances?
Covalent network substances have atoms as structural units.
Explain the melting point of covalent network substances.
Covalent network substances have very high melting points.
Differentiate between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.
Homogeneous mixtures are uniform, while heterogeneous mixtures have non-uniform properties.
What are the three physical states of matter?
The three physical states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas.
Define extensive properties of matter.
Extensive properties depend on the amount of material observed.
Explain the concept of intrinsic properties of matter.
Intrinsic properties are inherent to the substance and do not change.
What are physical properties of matter?
Physical properties are characteristics observed without changing identity or composition.
Give an example of a chemical change.
An example of a chemical change is the rusting of iron.
What types of chemical reactions include the formation of a bigger compound?
Synthesis/combination reactions involve formation of a bigger compound.
Describe a physical change in matter.
A physical change involves a change in phase or state without changing composition.
How does a system at equilibrium respond to the addition of a component?
Shift away from the added component.
What happens when a reactant or product is removed from a system at equilibrium?
The system will shift toward the removed component.
What effect does changing the volume of a gaseous system have on the system?
The system responds by reducing its own volume, decreasing the total number of gaseous molecules.
What is the effect of adding an inert gas to a gaseous system at constant volume?
Increases total pressure without affecting concentrations or partial pressures of reactants or products.
How does the equilibrium shift in response to added energy (heat)?
Shifts to the direction which consumes the added energy.
What is the role of a catalyst in a chemical reaction?
Speeds up both forward and backward reactions without changing the equilibrium amounts.
What is activation energy?
The threshold energy that must be overcome to produce a chemical reaction.
According to the Law of Thermodynamics, what happens to energy in a system?
Energy can be converted from one form to another but not created nor destroyed.
What occurs in a spontaneous process according to the Second Law of Thermodynamics?
There is always an increase in the entropy (disorder) of the universe.
What can a ΔG value of less than 0 represent in a process?
The process is spontaneous.
How should you waft fumes toward your nose for safety?
With a cupped hand
What is the recommended method for adding concentrated acid to water?
Always add the acid to the water with stirring.
How should you read a colorless liquid’s meniscus?
Read the lower meniscus at eye level.
When does a measurement have trailing zeros as significant digits?
Final zeros after a decimal point.
How many significant figures does 706.3 mm have?
4 significant figures.
What type of numbers have an unlimited number of significant figures?
Exact numbers.
What must be done with the sum or difference in addition and subtraction?
Should have the same decimal places as the least precise number.
In multiplication and division, what determines the number of significant figures in the result?
The factor with the least number of significant figures.
How should numbers be rounded off when exceeding significant figures?
Round off to the proper number following specific rules.
What does accuracy measure in chemistry?
Refers to the nearness of a value to the actual value.
How is precision measured in the context of chemistry?
By indication of the agreement among different measurements.
Define matter in scientific terms.
Anything that has mass, occupies space, and has inertia.
What is a pure substance?
Homogeneous matter with fixed composition and distinct properties.
What is a pure substance composed of only one type of atom?
Element.
What is the atomic number Z defined as?
Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
Define isotopes.
Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
Explain the concept of atomic mass for an element.
Weighted average of atomic masses of naturally occurring isotopes.
What is the difference between cations and anions?
Cations lost electrons equal to the charge, anions gained electrons equal to the charge.
According to the odd-even rule, what makes a nuclide more likely to be stable?
An even number of neutrons and protons.
What are the magic numbers in terms of stability of nuclides?
Specific numbers of protons or neutrons making isotopes more stable.
Explain the concept of half-life in nuclear chemistry.
The time required for half of radioactive nuclei in a sample to undergo decay.
Describe the process of fusion in nuclear chemistry.
Combining nuclei of lighter elements to form heavier nuclei.
What characterizes gamma emission in radioactive decay?
High-energy photons emitted, with no change in mass or atomic number of the nucleus.
Who suggested that a magnetic field affects a cathode ray?
Thomson
What did Thomson’s experiment suggest about atoms?
An arrangement of positive and negative charges
What did Thomson measure the charge to mass ratio of the electron to be?
-1.76 x 10^8 C/g
What did Robert Millikan determine the charge of an electron to be?
-1.6 x 10^-19 C
According to Rutherford’s model, where is most of the mass and all the positive charges located in an atom?
Centered in the nucleus
Who identified the positively charged particle and named it the proton?
Goldstein
According to Bohr’s model of the atom, how do electrons move around the nucleus?
In certain circular orbits
According to the Quantum Model, in what way is the energy of an electron quantized?
Energy levels are discrete
What principle states a limitation on our knowledge of a particle’s position and momentum?
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
What is the primary characteristic used to describe a wave’s behavior?
Wavelength
Define atomic spectra.
Discontinuous spectra with limited colored lines specific to elements
What does each element have that serves as its unique atomic fingerprint?
Distinctive line spectrum
Define Specific Heat Capacity (Cp).
The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1g of a substance by 1°C.
What is the formula for heat capacity (S)?
S = m * Cp, where S is heat capacity, m is mass, and Cp is specific heat capacity.
Explain the equation for calculating the amount of heat, Q.
Q = m * Cp * ΔT, where Q is heat, m is mass, Cp is specific heat capacity, and ΔT is temperature change.
How do you determine if a process is endothermic based on Q?
If Q is positive, the process is endothermic.
What is the definition of a calorimeter?
A closed container used to measure heat changes.
What happens in the Anode of an Electrochemical Cell?
Oxidation occurs at the Anode.
Explain the concept of Disproportionation Reaction.
It involves the same substance being both oxidized and reduced in a reaction.
Define Oxidizing Agent (Oxidant).
The Oxidizing Agent accepts electrons in a redox reaction.
What is the definition of Oxidation State?
A concept to track electrons in redox reactions following specific rules.
Describe the role of the Cathode in an Electrochemical Cell.
Reduction occurs at the Cathode.
Define displacement.
Displacement is the change in position of an object, representing the straight line path between starting and end points.
What is the difference between distance and displacement?
Distance is the total path length traveled by a body, while displacement is the change in position of an object.
Explain the Pythagorean Theorem in the context of vectors.
In vectors acting at right angles, the Pythagorean Theorem is used to find the resultant vector by mathematically adding the components.
Describe the Component Method in vector addition.
The Component Method involves adding x and y components of vectors acting on different directions to find the resultant vector.
What is uniform motion? Provide an equation to represent it.
Uniform motion is motion with constant velocity represented by the equation Δx = vt, where Δx is displacement, v is velocity, and t is time.
Explain the concept of speed and velocity.
Speed is a measure of how fast an object travels, while velocity is the rate of motion with direction.
Define acceleration.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity over time.
What organelle is known as the ‘powerhouse of the cell’?
Mitochondrion
Which organelle serves as the site of photosynthesis in plants and algae?
Chloroplast
What is the primary function of ribosomes in a cell?
Protein synthesis
What does the Endoplasmic Reticulum serve as in a cell?
Channels for material transport
What is the main function of the Golgi apparatus in cellular processes?
Selection and packaging of cellular materials
What is the ‘suicidal bag’ organelle in a cell called?
Lysosome
Define diffusion in cell transport.
Movement from high to low concentration
What theory states that all living things are made up of cells?
Cell Theory
What molecules serve as sources of building materials in cells?
Proteins
What is the function of centrioles in dividing cells?
Cytokinetic purposes
Describe mitosis in cell reproduction.
Division of somatic cells
Explain the concept of osmosis.
Diffusion of molecules across permeable membrane
What are the building blocks of fats/lipids?
Fatty acids and glycerol
How do prokaryotic cells differ from eukaryotic cells?
Lack membrane-bound organelles
What do cells require for active transport?
Expenditure of energy
How are ionic compounds named?
Write the name of the cation first, followed by the name of the anion.
In naming ionic compounds, what prefixes are not used?
Prefixes are not used to indicate the number of ions present.
What is the Stock System of Nomenclature used for?
To indicate the charge of the cation in ionic compounds.
What are hydrates in the context of ionic compounds?
They are compounds containing water molecules along with ions.
How are hydrates named differently from other ionic compounds?
The name includes ‘hydrate’ with a Greek prefix for water molecules.
What is the CROSS-OVER RULE in writing formulas of ionic compounds?
Subscripts are chosen to make the net charge zero.
How are binary acids named?
As hydro ____ic acid, replacing the stem of the nonmetal.
What differentiates naming conventions of HF in solution and pure HF?
In solution: hydrofluoric acid; pure: hydrogen fluoride.
How are oxyacids derived from oxyanions named?
The name is derived from oxyanion name with a change in suffix.
Define predation.
Predation is a relation where the predator benefits and the prey is harmed.
What are the three components of a food chain?
Producers, consumers, and decomposers.
Explain Liebig’s Law of Minimum.
It states growth depends on the least available nutrient.
What does Shellford’s Law of Tolerance state?
Organisms can live within a range of conditions.
What is the main focus of chemistry?
Studying matter, its properties, structure, and changes.
Name the five branches of chemistry.
Analytical, physical, inorganic, organic, biochemistry.
What is the scientific method?
A systematic approach in investigating nature.
Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative observations.
Qualitative is general; quantitative involves measurements.
What is a hypothesis?
An educated guess to explain an observation.
Explain the purpose of experimentation in the scientific method.
To test if the hypothesis is the problem’s answer.
Define empirical formula.
Empirical formula gives the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound.
Explain the concept of molecular formula using an example.
Molecular formula provides the actual number of each element in a molecule. Example: Glucose - C6H12O6.
Define chemical stoichiometry.
Chemical stoichiometry is the quantitative relationship between reactants and products in a reaction.
What is percent yield in a chemical reaction?
Percent yield is the actual amount of product obtained compared to the theoretical amount, expressed as a percentage.
Explain the concept of limiting reactant.
Limiting reactant is the reactant that gets fully consumed and determines the maximum amount of product formed.
What is a chemical bond?
A chemical bond is the force that holds atoms together in a molecule.
Define bond length in a covalent bond.
Bond length is the distance between the nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms.
Differentiate between polar and nonpolar covalent bonds.
Polar covalent bonds have unequal electron sharing, while nonpolar covalent bonds share electrons equally.
What is an ionic bond?
Ionic bond involves the transfer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal forming ions.
Explain the concept of Lewis structure.
Lewis structure uses electron dot symbols to represent atoms, molecules, or ions based on the octet rule.
Define collision.
Collision - any string interaction between two bodies that lasts a relatively short time.
What are the two types of collision?
Elastic and inelastic collision.
Explain elastic collision.
After the collision, the objects are still separated from each other.
Describe inelastic collision.
After the collision, the objects move as one unit.
Define work and provide the formula for it.
Formula: W = F * Δx.
When does a force do no work?
A force does no work if it is perpendicular to the displacement.
What is the formula for gravitational potential energy?
PE = m * g * h
Explain elastic potential energy.
Energy stored on an elastic material due to its stretching or compressing.
What is the formula for kinetic energy?
KE = 0.5 * m * v^2
