Untitled Deck Flashcards
1
Q
What are the 11 body systems?
A
Urinary, reproductive, integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, circulatory/cardiovascular, endocrine, lymphatic, digestive, respiratory
2
Q
What is the function of the urinary system?
A
Produces, stores, and eliminates urine; eliminates wastes and regulates volume and chemical composition of blood; maintains body’s acid-base balance and mineral balance.
3
Q
What is the reproductive system responsible for?
A
Gonads produce gametes (sperm or oocytes) that unite to form a new organism and release hormones that regulate reproduction and other body processes.
4
Q
What are the functions of the integumentary system?
A
Protects body, helps regulate body temperature, eliminates some wastes, helps make vitamin D, detects sensations, and stores fat.
5
Q
What is the skeletal system’s role?
A
Supports and protects the body, provides surface area for muscle attachments, aids body movement, and houses cells that produce blood cells.
6
Q
What does the muscular system do?
A
Participates in body movements, maintains posture, and produces heat.
7
Q
What is the function of the nervous system?
A
Generates nerve impulses to regulate body activities and detects changes in the body’s internal and external environments.
8
Q
What does the circulatory/cardiovascular system do?
A
Heart pumps blood through blood vessels, carrying oxygen and nutrients to cells and removing carbon dioxide and waste.
9
Q
What is the role of the endocrine system?
A
Regulates body activities by releasing hormones.
10
Q
What does the lymphatic system do?
A
Returns proteins and fluid to blood, carries lipids from the gastrointestinal tract to blood, and contains sites for B and T cell maturation.
11
Q
What is the digestive system’s function?
A
Achieves physical and chemical breakdown of food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates solid wastes.
12
Q
What is the respiratory system responsible for?
A
Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air.
13
Q
How can you remember the 11 body systems?
A
MR DICE RUINS
14
Q
What is homeostasis?
A
Process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment.
15
Q
What are the levels of structural organization?
A
Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal.
16
Q
What is intracellular fluid?
A
Fluid within cells.
17
Q
What is extracellular fluid?
A
Fluid outside the cell.
18
Q
What is interstitial fluid?
A
Fluid in the spaces between cells.
19
Q
What causes disruptions in homeostasis?
A
External, internal, and social environment factors.
20
Q
What are the effects of homeostasis failure?
A
Death, disease, and disorder.
21
Q
What are the four elements of a feedback system?
A
Stimulus, receptor, control center, effector.
22
Q
How does a body regulate its internal environment?
A
Through feedback systems.
23
Q
What is a receptor?
A
A body structure that monitors changes in controlled conditions and sends input to the control center.
24
Q
What does the control center do?
A
Sets the range of values within which a controlled condition should be maintained and generates output commands to the effector.
25
What is an effector?
A body structure that receives output from the control center and produces a response that changes the controlled condition.
26
What are the two types of feedback systems?
Positive and negative feedback systems.
27
What is a negative feedback system?
Reverses a change in a controlled condition and maintains homeostasis.
28
What is a positive feedback system?
Results in the amplification or growth of the output signal and disrupts homeostasis.
29
What are the four main chemical elements?
Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen.
30
What is the percentage of oxygen in the body?
65%.
31
What is the percentage of carbon in the body?
18.5%.
32
What is the percentage of hydrogen in the body?
9.5%.
33
What is the percentage of nitrogen in the body?
3.2%.
34
What are some lesser elements in the body?
Calcium 1.5%, Phosphorus 1%, Potassium 0.35%, Sodium 0.2%, Chlorine 0.2%, Magnesium 0.1%, Iron 0.005%.
35
What are atoms?
Smallest component of an element that retains the properties of that element.
36
What are the charges of protons, neutrons, and electrons?
Protons have a positive charge, neutrons have a neutral charge, and electrons have a negative charge.
37
What is a hydrogen bond?
Attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom.
38
What happens when two opposite charges are near each other?
They will be drawn closer together.
39
What are the two categories of ions?
Cations and anions.
40
What are cations?
Atoms that lose electrons, are electron donors, and possess a net positive charge.
41
What are anions?
Atoms that gain electrons, are electron acceptors, and possess a net negative charge.
42
What are the three chemical bonds?
Ionic, covalent, hydrogen.
43
What are ionic bonds?
Formed between cations and anions and are the strongest type of bond.
44
What are covalent bonds?
Formed by elements with less than 8 valence electrons and can be polar or non-polar.
45
What are hydrogen bonds?
Weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another atom.
46
How do you calculate the total mass of an atom?
Proton + neutron + electron = atomic weight.
47
What is the atomic number?
Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
48
What are organic compounds?
Carbon-based compounds characteristic of living organisms.
49
What are inorganic compounds?
Not of biologic origin and tend to not contain carbon atoms.
50
What is a nonpolar covalent bond?
Electrons are shared equally, and atoms remain electrically neutral.
51
What are polar covalent bonds?
Involve unequal sharing of electrons, resulting in slight positive or negative charges.
52
What is the role of aqueous solutions as a solvent?
Provides a medium for solutes and dissolves many substances.
53
What is the reactivity of aqueous solutions?
Participates in hydrolysis and dehydration reactions.
54
What is the high heat capacity of aqueous solutions?
Extreme temperatures are required for phase transition, aiding in body temperature control.
55
What is the lubrication function of aqueous solutions?
Creates lubrication in the body, important for movement.
56
What are hydrophilic compounds?
Polar compounds that dissolve well in water.
57
What are hydrophobic compounds?
Nonpolar compounds that do not dissolve well in water.
58
What is metabolism?
All chemical reactions that occur in cells and tissues of the body to provide energy.
59
What does metabolism provide energy for?
Maintaining homeostasis, growth, maintenance, repair, secretion, and contraction.
60
What are the three energy transfers in chemical reactions?
Exergonic, endergonic, coupling.
61
What are exergonic reactions?
Release more energy than they absorb.
62
What are endergonic reactions?
Absorb more energy than they release.
63
What are coupling reactions?
Energy released from exergonic reactions is often used to drive endergonic reactions.
64
What are the types of chemical reactions?
Decomposition, exchange displacement, synthesis.
65
What is a catalyst?
Speeds up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy.
66
What is the function of carbohydrates?
Energy source in both immediate and storage forms.
67
What is the carbohydrate ratio?
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen (1:2:1).
68
What are the subdivisions of carbohydrates?
Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides.
69
What are the types of lipids?
Fatty acids, glycerides, conjugated lipids, steroids, eicosanoids.
70
What are lipids?
Essential structural components of all cells and deposits of important energy reserves.
71
What are the two classifications of cells?
Sex cells and somatic cells.
72
What are sex cells?
Reproductive cells, germ cells, gametes.
73
What is the cell membrane?
A cell structure that controls which substances can enter or leave the cell.
74
What is the nucleus?
A large organelle that houses most of a cell's DNA.
75
What is cytoplasm?
The fluid inside a cell and the medium for chemical reactions.
76
What do mitochondria do?
Make ATP, which energizes the cell.
77
What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum?
Makes proteins.
78
What is the cytoskeleton?
An internal protein framework that provides strength and flexibility.
79
What are the components of the cytoskeleton?
Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules.
80
What is the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)?
A network of intracellular membranes connected to the nuclear envelope.
81
What is the function of smooth ER?
Lipid synthesis and metabolism, detoxification, carbohydrate metabolism, and calcium storage.
82
What is the function of rough ER?
Protein 'workshop' and 'shipping depot' with fixed ribosomes on the outer surface.
83
What are the functions of the cell membrane?
Physical isolation, regulation of exchange with the environment, communication, and structural support.
84
What are the body fluid compartments?
Intracellular and extracellular.
85
What is membrane permeability?
Impermeable (nothing passes), freely permeable (any substance passes), selectively permeable (some materials pass).
86
What are the types of transport across the plasma membrane?
Passive transport and active transport.
87
What is passive transport?
Includes simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis.
88
What is active transport?
An energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference.
89
What is diffusion?
Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
90
What is osmosis?
Describes water movement across cell membranes by diffusion.
91
What is tonicity?
Relates to how a solution influences the shape of body cells.
92
What is primary active transport?
Energy derived from ATP changes the shape of a transporter protein to pump a substance across a plasma membrane.
93
What is secondary active transport?
Energy stored in a concentration gradient is used to drive other substances against their own concentration gradients.
94
What are the types of proteins?
Structural, regulatory, contractile, transport, immunological, catalytic.
95
What are proteins composed of?
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and trace elements.
96
What percentage of a normal lean adult body is protein?
12-18%.
97
What is gene expression?
Synthesis of a specific protein requires transcription of DNA into RNA and translation of RNA into a sequence of amino acids.
98
What is transcription?
The process of copying information from DNA to produce RNA.
99
What is translation?
The process where RNA attaches to a ribosome and is translated into a sequence of amino acids.
100
What is the genetic code?
Information read in groups of three nitrogenous bases called a codon.
101
What does a codon specify?
A single amino acid.
102
What is mRNA?
A single-stranded RNA molecule that encodes the information to make a protein.
103
What is rRNA?
Joins with ribosomal proteins to make ribosomes.
104
What is tRNA?
Transfers amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis.
105
How does protein synthesis occur?
Via translation, requiring all three types of RNA.
106
What is cell division?
The process by which cells reproduce themselves.
107
What is the cell cycle?
A series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide.
108
What are the stages of the cell cycle?
Mitotic phase, interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis.
109
What does interphase consist of?
G0 phase, G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase.
110
What is DNA replication?
Parental DNA strands are separated and serve as templates to generate new complementary DNA strands.
111
What is the mitotic phase?
When the nucleus divides and its chromosomes are distributed to daughter nuclei.
112
What happens during prophase?
Duplicated chromosomes become tightly coiled, centrosomes divide, spindle fibers appear, and the nuclear envelope disappears.
113
What occurs during metaphase?
Chromatids align on the metaphase plate.
114
What happens during anaphase?
Centromeres split, chromatids separate, and daughter chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles.
115
What occurs during telophase?
Nuclear envelope reforms, nuclei enlarge, chromosomes uncoil, and nucleoli reappear.
116
What is cytokinesis?
Cytoplasmic division of daughter cells.
117
What are human somatic cells?
Diploid with 23 pairs of chromosomes.
118
What are human gametes?
Haploid with 22 autosomes and 1 sex chromosome.
119
What are homologous chromosomes?
Chromosomes that have the same sequence of genes and structure.
120
What are alleles?
Variants of a gene that code for a variant of a protein.
121
What are the two alleles everyone has?
Maternal and paternal.
122
What does homozygous mean?
Identical alleles with only one option in protein function.
123
What does heterozygous mean?
Different alleles, consisting of one dominant and one recessive allele.
124
What are traits?
Measurable and observable features influenced by genetics and environment.
125
What is phenotype?
Observable traits.
126
What is genotype?
An individual's collection of genes or the two alleles inherited for a particular gene.
127
What is a dominant allele?
Always represented by a capital letter.
128
What is a recessive allele?
Always represented by a lowercase letter.
129
What is simple genetics?
Considers a single trait influenced by a single gene with clear dominant and recessive inheritance patterns.
130
What is complex genetics?
Considers traits influenced by multiple genes and/or the environment.
131
What are the two variations of dominance?
Co-dominance and incomplete dominance.
132
What are family pedigrees?
Genetic family trees that identify inheritance patterns of traits or diseases.
133
What is the Punnett Square Method?
A method of predicting the genotypes and phenotypes of offspring in genetic crosses.
134
What is autosomal dominant inheritance?
Presence of certain genes means there is a 100% chance of developing the disease.
135
What is an example of autosomal dominant inheritance?
Huntington's disease.
136
What is sex-linked inheritance?
X and Y chromosomes contain different genes, with X having many more genes than Y.
137
What is X-linked recessive inheritance?
Gene located on the X chromosome, with phenotype predominantly in males and heterozygous females as carriers.
138
What is a genetic disease?
A trait that confers a disadvantage to the individual, with the underlying genetic change considered a mutation.
139
What is tissue?
An organized aggregation of cells and their products that function collectively.
140
What are cell junctions?
Structures that anchor, occlude, and enable communication between cells.
141
What are tight junctions?
Interlocking membrane proteins that fuse adjacent cells.
142
What are adherens junctions?
Contain plaque, a dense layer of proteins on the inside of the plasma membrane.
143
What is X-linked recessive inheritance?
A gene located on the X chromosome, with the phenotype predominantly in males and heterozygous females as carriers.
144
What defines a genetic disease?
A trait that confers a disadvantage to the individual, with the underlying genetic change considered a mutation.
145
What are adherens junctions?
Junctions that contain plaque, a dense layer of proteins that attaches to membrane proteins and microfilaments of the cytoskeleton.
146
What is a desmosome?
A structure where cadherins and plaque attach to intermediate filaments, linking opposing membranes and resisting mechanical forces.
147
What are hemidesmosomes?
Structures that anchor cells to the basement membrane.
148
What are gap junctions?
Connections between cells held together by connexons, allowing free diffusion of ions and small molecules for rapid communication.
149
What do membranes do?
They line or cover body surfaces, typically consisting of epithelium supported by connective tissue.
150
What are the four types of membranes?
Mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial.
151
What is a mucous membrane?
A membrane that lines body cavities that open to the outside.
152
What is a serous membrane?
A membrane that lines internal cavities and minimizes friction between opposing parietal and visceral surfaces.
153
What are the portions of a serous membrane?
Parietal portion (lines inner surface of cavity) and visceral portion or serosa (lines outer surface of organ).
154
What is a synovial membrane?
The membrane lining the capsule of a joint.
155
What is a cutaneous membrane?
The skin, which covers the surface of the body.
156
What are the functions of epithelial tissues?
Physical protection, control of permeability, sensation, and specialized secretions.
157
What must an epithelium have to be an effective barrier?
A complete cover or lining.
158
What are the arrangements of layers of epithelial tissue?
Simple, pseudostratified, and stratified.
159
What are the cell shapes of epithelial tissue?
Squamous, cuboidal, and columnar.
160
What are glandular epithelia?
Gland cells that are specialized for secretion.
161
What are exocrine glands?
Glands that release secretions into ducts that open onto the epithelial surface.
162
What is connective tissue?
A body tissue that provides support and protection for the body and connects all of its parts.
163
What are the cellular components of connective tissue?
Fibroblasts, adipocytes, and immune cells.
164
What connective tissue fibers are included?
Collagen, reticular fibers, and elastic fibers.
165
What is loose connective tissue?
Tissue that lies immediately under epithelial coverings.
166
What is dense connective tissue?
Tissue that connects two or more tissues together.
167
What are the components of the skeletal system?
Bone, ligaments, tendons, joints, and connective tissue.
168
What are the cells of bone tissue?
Osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts.
169
What is compact bone?
The hard external layer of all bones that surrounds the medullary cavity.
170
What is spongy bone?
A lighter and less dense structure than compact bone.
171
What do osteoclasts do?
They empty enzymes and acid into the bone to liquify and remove it.
172
What do osteoblasts do?
They build bone.
173
What does normal bone metabolism depend on?
Minerals, vitamins, and hormones.
174
How are bones adapted?
They are both light and strong and constantly remodel in response to load.
175
What is blood composed of?
55% plasma and 45% formed elements.
176
What is plasma composed of?
91.5% water, 7% proteins, and 1.5% other solutes.
177
What does the lymphatic system consist of?
Lymph fluid, lymphatic vessels, and lymphatic tissue.
178
What are the specialized movements of muscle tissue?
Locomotion, constricting, pumping, and propulsion.
179
What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)?
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum that stores calcium critical to contraction.
180
What are the three types of muscle tissue?
Smooth, cardiac, and skeletal.
181
What is the control of smooth muscle?
Involuntary.
182
What is the control of cardiac muscle tissue?
Involuntary.
183
What is the control of skeletal muscle tissue?
Voluntary.
184
What are the two types of control of contractile tissues?
Neural (rapid messages for rapid responses) and endocrine (slower messages for specific functions).
185
What is nervous tissue specialized for?
The conduction of electrical impulses.
186
What are the two types of cells in nervous tissue?
Neurons and glial cells.
187
What are the four types of neurons?
Unipolar, bipolar, pseudounipolar, and multipolar.
188
What do glial cells do?
Support and repair neural tissues.
189
What are the anatomic divisions of nervous tissue?
Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.
190
What does the central nervous system consist of?
The brain and spinal cord, containing nuclei for functionally similar neurons.
191
What does the peripheral nervous system consist of?
Nerves and ganglia, arranged with neurons having similar destinations.
192
What cannot the central and peripheral nervous system do?
Exist as separate entities.
193
What are the functional divisions of nervous tissue?
Sensory (afferent - information in) and motor (efferent - information out).
194
What are the subdivisions of motor components?
Somatic and autonomic.
195
What are organs?
Groups of tissues that carry out related functions, containing two or more of the four tissue types in various combinations.
196
What are systems?
Groups of organs working together to perform complex functions.
197
What is the integration of body systems?
Epithelia, muscle, neural tissues, and connective tissues.
