Untitled Deck Flashcards
1
Q
What is an Explanatory Hypothesis?
A
A statement predicting the expected relationship between two or more variables, involving an independent variable (IV) and a dependent variable (DV).
2
Q
What is an Independent Variable (IV)?
A
The variable that is manipulated or changed to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
3
Q
What is a Dependent Variable (DV)?
A
The outcome variable that is measured to assess the effect of the independent variable.
4
Q
What are Measurement Levels?
A
The classification of variables based on how they are measured.
5
Q
What are Categorical Variables?
A
Discrete categories (e.g., marital status).
6
Q
What is a Nominal Variable?
A
Categories without a specific order.
7
Q
What is an Ordinal Variable?
A
Categories with a specific order.
8
Q
What are Continuous Variables?
A
Numeric values that can take on a range of values (e.g., weight, scores).
9
Q
What is a Continuous Statement?
A
A hypothesis indicating that changes in one continuous variable are associated with changes in another.
10
Q
What is a Difference Statement?
A
A hypothesis that indicates differences in the dependent variable across categories of an independent variable.
11
Q
What is a Conditional Statement?
A
An ‘if-then’ statement that expresses a hypothesis in terms of specific conditions.
12
Q
What is a Positive Relationship?
A
A relationship where an increase in one variable corresponds with an increase in another.
13
Q
What is a Negative Relationship?
A
A relationship where an increase in one variable corresponds with a decrease in another.
14
Q
What is a Univariate Relationship?
A
A hypothesis involving one IV and one DV.
15
Q
What is a Bivariate Relationship?
A
A hypothesis involving two or more IVs and one DV.
16
Q
What is Mediation?
A
A type of relationship where the effect of an IV on a DV is explained by an intermediate variable (the mediator).
17
Q
What is Moderation?
A
A relationship where the strength or direction of the effect of an IV on a DV is dependent on the value of another variable (the moderator).
18
Q
What is a Causal Relationship?
A
A relationship where one variable directly influences another.
19
Q
What is a Spurious Relationship?
A
An apparent relationship between two variables that is actually influenced by a third variable.
20
Q
What is a Conceptual Model?
A
A visual representation that summarizes the relationships among variables in a hypothesis.
21
Q
What does Strength of Relationship indicate?
A
Indicates how strong the association is between the IV and DV, often represented by symbols like + or - in a conceptual model.
22
Q
What is Measurement?
A
The process of assigning numerals (numbers, symbols, labels) to empirical characteristics (variables) according to specified rules.
23
Q
What is a Numeral?
A
A symbol (e.g., 1, 2, 3) that has no inherent quantitative meaning unless defined within a context.
24
Q
What are Rules in measurement?
A
Procedures used to assign numerals to variables in measurement.
25
What is Conceptualization?
The process of creating concise and precise definitions of phenomena of interest; remains abstract.
26
What is Operationalization?
Translating an abstract concept into a measurable variable observable in the real world.
27
How is Wealth defined?
Defined as an accumulation of valuable economic resources, operationalized as an individual’s yearly income.
28
What are the Measurement Levels?
Categories of measurement for variables.
29
What is a Nominal Variable?
Variables with two or more categories without intrinsic order (e.g., types of residences).
30
What is an Ordinal Variable?
Variables with categories that can be ordered or ranked (e.g., levels of language proficiency).
31
What is an Interval Variable?
Variables measured along a continuum with known and constant distances between values (e.g., temperature in Celsius).
32
What is a Ratio Variable?
Interval variables with an absolute zero indicating none of the variable (e.g., years of education).
33
What is a Unit of Analysis?
The entity or level about which statements are made in research (e.g., individuals, provinces, countries).
34
What is Aggregated Data?
Data that combines responses across smaller units (e.g., individuals) to describe characteristics of a larger unit (e.g., a province).
35
What is Nested Data?
Small units embedded within larger units (e.g., individuals within families, neighborhoods, cities).
36
What is the Individualistic Fallacy?
Drawing conclusions about groups based on evidence from individuals, which can lead to erroneous generalizations.
37
What is the Ecological Fallacy?
Inferring individual behavior from group characteristics, which can result in misleading conclusions.
38
What are Constructs?
Complex concepts in social sciences that cannot be directly observed and are measured using observable indicators (e.g., motivation, creativity).
39
What is Social Capital?
Refers to resources available within a social organization or network that facilitate cooperation and mutual support; includes structural and cognitive dimensions.
40
What are Scales and Indexes?
Tools used to measure constructs with multiple dimensions, requiring multiple questions to capture various aspects.
41
What is Reliability?
The stability and consistency of a measurement; concerns whether repeated applications yield consistent results.
42
What is Validity?
The degree to which an operational definition reflects the concept it is intended to measure.
43
What is Test-Retest Reliability?
Assessing reliability by administering the same measurement instrument to the same group at different times.
44
What is Split-Half Reliability?
Estimating reliability by dividing the measurement instrument into two halves and checking the correlation between them.
45
What is Intercoder Reliability?
The extent to which different observers produce similar results using the same measurement instrument.
46
What is Face Validity?
A judgment about whether an operational definition appears to measure what it intends to measure.
47
What is Content Validity?
Ensures that a measurement instrument covers all dimensions of the construct’s definition.
48
What is Convergent Validity?
When two measures that are theoretically related show a high correlation.
49
What is Discriminant Validity?
When a measurement instrument differentiates from other unrelated constructs, indicating low correlation.
50
What are Observations in qualitative research?
Gathering data by watching behaviors and events in their natural settings, primarily for descriptive research.
51
What are Structured Observations?
Pre-determined observation criteria; can be used for quantitative research.
52
What are Unstructured Observations?
Open and flexible, capturing detailed descriptions of the environment and behaviors.
53
What are the Types of Observation by Observer Role?
Full Participant, Participant as Observer, Observer as Participant, Full Observer.
54
What is Full Participant Observation?
Observer is fully immersed, and participants are unaware they are being studied.
55
What is Participant as Observer?
Observer is engaged with participants as a neutral party and identified as a researcher.
56
What is Observer as Participant?
Observer is known to participants with limited interaction.
57
What is Full Observer?
Observer has no active engagement and is usually known to participants.
58
What is Interviewing?
A method involving open-ended questions to gain an in-depth understanding of participants' reasons, beliefs, feelings, and perceptions.
59
What is a Semi-Structured Interview?
Partially structured by the researcher with a topic guide, allowing organic conversation.
60
What is an Open Interview?
Little prior knowledge on the topic; participant-driven, suitable for exploratory research.
61
What is Ethnography?
A qualitative method aimed at understanding people and cultures in their natural environments through immersive fieldwork, observations, and interviews.
62
What is Credibility in qualitative research?
The degree to which the findings are believable, ensured by alignment between theory, research questions, data collection, and analysis.
63
What is Dependability?
The study’s replicability, achieved by providing detailed procedures that another researcher could follow to replicate the study.
64
What is Confirmability?
A clear relationship between data and findings, ensuring transparency and minimizing researcher bias through detailed descriptions and quotes.
65
What is Transferability?
The potential for findings to be applicable in other contexts, supported by a detailed description of the research context and participants ('thick description').
66
What is Quantitative Research?
Focus on relationships and effects, using structured tools like questionnaires and experiments.
67
What is Qualitative Research?
Focus on processes, events, experiences, perceptions, and beliefs, using interviews, field research, and open questions.
68
What is Sampling?
The process of selecting a subset (sample) of individuals, objects, or events from a larger group (population) to study and draw conclusions about the population.
69
What is a Sample?
A subset of the population chosen for the study.
70
What is a Population in research?
The total group of individuals or items that the study is concerned with.
71
What is Sampling Design?
The strategy or method used to select the sample.
72
What is a Sampling Frame?
The operational definition of the population; a list of all elements from which the sample is drawn.
73
What is a Target Population?
The entire group that the research aims to understand or analyze.
74
What is Probability Sampling?
A sampling method where each element in the population has a known and non-zero chance of selection.
75
What is Simple Random Sampling (SRS)?
Every individual has an equal chance of being selected.
76
What is Stratified Random Sampling?
The population is divided into subgroups (strata), and random samples are taken from each subgroup.
77
What is Proportionate Stratified Sampling?
The sample size for each stratum is proportional to the size of the stratum in the population.
78
What is Disproportionate Stratified Sampling?
Some strata are oversampled or undersampled for specific comparisons.
79
What is Cluster Sampling?
Groups (clusters) of the population are randomly selected, and either all or some individuals within the clusters are sampled.
80
What is One-Stage Cluster Sampling?
All individuals in selected clusters are included.
81
What is Multi-Stage Cluster Sampling?
Clusters are selected, and then samples are drawn within those clusters.
82
What is Probability Proportionate to Size (PPS) Sampling?
Clusters are selected with probabilities proportional to their size.
83
What is Non-Probability Sampling?
A sampling method where elements do not have a known chance of being selected.
84
What is Coverage Error?
The discrepancy between the target population and the sampling frame.
85
What is Undercoverage?
Some members of the target population are not included in the sampling frame.
86
What is Overcoverage?
The sampling frame includes individuals not in the target population.
87
What is Sampling Error?
The difference between the population parameter and the sample statistic due to random variation in the sample selection process.
88
What is Sampling Bias?
A systematic distortion in the representativeness of the sample due to flawed sampling design.
89
What is External Validity?
The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to the broader population.
90
What is a Lotto-Procedure?
A traditional method of random selection, now largely replaced by computational methods.
91
What is Random Number Generation?
A modern and efficient method of selecting random samples using computer algorithms.
92
What are Strata?
Homogeneous subgroups into which the population is divided for stratified sampling.
93
What are Clusters?
Natural groupings of the population, often geographical or organizational, used in cluster sampling.
94
What is a Primary Sampling Unit (PSU)?
The first level of selection in multi-stage sampling, often a cluster.
95
What is the Research Goal?
The primary objective or aim of a research study.
96
What is Quantitative Focus?
The use of numerical data and statistical methods to generalize findings.
97
What is Qualitative Focus?
The use of in-depth interviews and thematic analysis to gather rich, detailed insights.
98
What is Non-Probability Sampling (NPS)?
Sampling methods that do not rely on random selection, meaning some members of the population may have zero or unknown probabilities of being selected.
99
What is the Sampling Frame in NPS?
A list or database from which a sample is drawn; typically unavailable in NPS.
100
What is Margin of Error in NPS?
The extent to which the results of the sample differ from the true population values; cannot be calculated in NPS.
101
What is Representativeness in NPS?
The degree to which a sample accurately reflects the characteristics of the population; not guaranteed in NPS.
102
What is Convenience Sampling?
Selecting participants who are most easily accessible.
103
What is a drawback of Convenience Sampling?
Homogeneous samples and lack of generalizability.
104
What is Quota Sampling?
Dividing the population into categories and sampling a proportional number of participants from each.
105
What is Criterion Sampling?
Selecting participants who meet predefined criteria.
106
What is Maximum Variation Sampling?
Including participants with diverse backgrounds to capture a wide range of perspectives.
107
What is Homogeneous Sampling?
Selecting participants with shared characteristics or experiences for in-depth insights.
108
What is Typical-Case Sampling?
Choosing participants who represent the average case within a context.
109
What is Extreme-Case Sampling?
Targeting participants with unusual or outlier experiences.
110
What is Saturation in qualitative research?
The point in qualitative research where no new themes or insights emerge from additional data collection.
111
What are Hard-to-Reach Populations?
Subgroups within a population that are not easily identifiable or accessible (e.g., undocumented migrants, graduates who returned to their home countries).
112
What is Snowball Sampling?
A technique where initial participants recruit additional participants from their networks.
113
What is Respondent-Driven Sampling (RDS)?
An advanced form of snowball sampling designed for quantitative studies of hidden populations.
114
What are Statistical Adjustments in RDS?
Methods used in RDS to account for biases such as unequal network sizes.
115
What is Survey Research?
The collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questionnaires.
116
What is a Questionnaire?
A pre-constructed set of questions used to collect data from respondents.
117
What is Numerical Coding?
Assigning numeric values to respondents’ answers to facilitate analysis.
118
What are the General Characteristics of Surveys?
Efficient and economical, allowing for large sample sizes.
119
What is Anonymity in surveys?
A feature that encourages openness by keeping respondents' identities private.
120
What is Flexibility in surveys?
The ability to investigate diverse topics and research questions.
121
What is Social Desirability Bias?
The tendency of respondents to answer questions in a way they believe is socially acceptable or favorable.
122
What is Reactive Measurement?
Changes in respondents' behavior or answers due to awareness of being observed.
123
What are Fatigue Effects?
Decreased response quality as respondents tire while completing a survey.
124
What is Attrition?
The loss of respondents during a study, which can result in biased data.
125
What is Cross-Sectional Design?
Data is collected at a single point in time from a single sample.
126
What is Longitudinal Design?
Data is collected at multiple points in time to examine changes over time.
127
What is a Trend Study?
A longitudinal study where different samples are surveyed at different times.
128
What is Attrition in survey research?
The loss of respondents during a study, which can result in biased data.
129
What is a Trend Study?
A longitudinal study where different samples are surveyed over time from the same population.
130
What is a Panel Study?
A longitudinal study where the same sample is surveyed repeatedly over time.
131
What is a Cohort Study?
A trend study focusing on a group of individuals experiencing the same significant event at the same time.
132
What is a Sampling Frame?
A list or database from which a sample is drawn.
133
What is Response Rate?
The proportion of individuals who complete the survey out of those invited to participate.
134
What is Non-Response?
Failure of individuals to participate or answer specific survey questions.
135
What is Unit Non-Response?
When an individual does not respond to the entire survey.
136
What is Item Non-Response?
When specific questions are left unanswered.
137
What is Measurement Error?
The difference between the true value and the respondent’s reported value, caused by issues like question wording or biases.
138
What is Acquiescence Bias?
Tendency to agree with statements regardless of content.
139
What is Recall Bias?
Inaccurate recollection of past events or behaviors by respondents.
140
What is Primacy/Recency Bias?
Preference for options listed first or last.
141
What is Coverage Error?
When some members of the target population are not included in the sampling frame.
142
What are Survey Modes?
The methods used to administer surveys to respondents.
143
What are Interviews in survey research?
Face-to-face or telephone surveys conducted by an interviewer.
144
What are Self-Administered Questionnaires?
Surveys completed by respondents without direct interaction with an interviewer (e.g., online or mail surveys).
145
What is Interviewer Bias?
Distortion in responses caused by an interviewer’s characteristics or behavior.
146
What is a Mixed-Mode Survey?
Combining different survey methods to offset the weaknesses of each mode.
147
What are Mode Differences?
Variations in responses caused by the mode of administration (e.g., face-to-face vs. online).
148
What is Panel Conditioning?
Changes in respondents’ answers over time due to repeated measurements in longitudinal studies.
149
What is Survey Mode Bias?
Bias introduced when respondents are allowed to choose their preferred survey mode.
150
What is a Questionnaire?
A versatile survey instrument used to collect data on thoughts, knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, values, perceptions, and behaviors.
151
What is the key objective of a questionnaire?
Ensure questionnaire items align with research objectives to obtain accurate and relevant responses.
152
Why is questionnaire design important?
Even the best sample cannot compensate for a poorly designed questionnaire.
153
What should be matched to research objectives in questionnaire construction?
Ensure all questions are relevant to the study and exclude irrelevant questions.
154
What language should be used in questionnaires?
Use familiar, accessible language and avoid jargon, adapting to cultural, age, and educational contexts.
155
What are guidelines for writing clear questions?
Keep questions unambiguous and short, avoiding vague quantifiers.
156
What is an example of a poor question?
“Have you ever bought groceries via internet-based platforms?”
## Footnote
Improved: “Have you ever used online platforms to buy groceries?”
157
What are leading questions?
Questions that suggest a specific response.
158
What are loaded questions?
Questions that use emotional or exaggerated language.
159
What is a neutral example of a question?
“How concerned are you about the risks of social media use among teenagers?”
160
What are double-barreled questions?
Questions that address more than one issue.
161
What are double negatives?
Phrasing that reduces clarity and increases confusion.
162
What is the difference between open-ended and closed-ended questions?
Open-ended questions allow nuanced responses, while closed-ended questions are easier to analyze.
163
What are types of closed-ended response formats?
Dichotomous, Rating Scales, Ranking, Checklists, Semantic Differentials.
164
What is the purpose of offering an 'I Don’t Know' option?
Useful for knowledge questions but may lower response quality for opinions.
165
What is the benefit of using multiple items for abstract constructs?
Combining multiple indicators increases reliability.
166
What should be ensured for ease of use in questionnaires?
Begin with non-threatening questions and keep the survey concise and logically organized.
167
What is a pilot test in questionnaire construction?
Testing with 5–10 individuals from the target population to identify confusing or poorly designed items.
168
What is indirect questioning?
A technique used to ask sensitive questions without direct confrontation.
169
What is normalization for deviations from social norms?
Creating an environment that makes respondents comfortable sharing socially undesirable behaviors.
170
What is the definition of Experimental Designs?
The structured arrangement of conditions under which experiments are conducted to evaluate hypotheses.
171
What is an Independent Variable (IV)?
The factor manipulated by the experimenter to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
172
What is a Dependent Variable (DV)?
The outcome or response measured to determine the effect of the independent variable.
173
What is a Control Group?
A group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or manipulation, serving as a baseline for comparison.
174
What is an Experimental Group?
The group exposed to the manipulation or treatment being tested.
175
What is Random Assignment?
The process of randomly allocating participants to different experimental conditions to reduce bias.
176
What is a Confounding Variable?
An extraneous variable that can interfere with the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
177
What is Factorial Design?
An experimental setup that investigates multiple independent variables and their interactions simultaneously.
178
What is Repeated Measures Design?
An experimental design where the same participants are exposed to all conditions or treatments.
179
What is Between-Subjects Design?
A design in which different participants are assigned to separate groups, each experiencing different conditions.
180
What is Mixed Design?
A combination of between-subjects and within-subjects designs.
181
What is Quasi-Experimental Design?
A research design that lacks random assignment but still tests hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships.
182
What are True Experiments?
Experiments that meet the criteria of association, precedence, and non-spuriousness through randomization, manipulation, and measurement.
183
What are Reactive Measurement Effects?
Changes in participants' behavior because they are aware of being part of an experiment.
184
What are Demand Characteristics?
Cues in the experimental setting that reveal the hypothesis or expectations, influencing participant behavior.
185
What is Experimenter Bias?
Non-intentional influence by the researcher that can affect the dependent variable through subtle communication or behavior.
186
What is Internal Validity?
The extent to which an experimental design allows the conclusion that observed changes in the dependent variable are caused by the independent variable.
187
What is External Validity?
The extent to which the results of an experiment can be generalized beyond the experimental setting.
188
What are Pre-Experimental Designs?
Designs that do not meet all criteria for true experiments, often unable to rule out threats to internal validity.
189
What are True Experimental Designs?
Experiments involving random assignment, control groups, and manipulation of variables to eliminate alternative explanations.
190
What are Quasi-Experimental Designs?
Designs used when random assignment is not feasible, involving intact groups or time-series data.
191
What are threats to Internal Validity?
Categories include time-related, measurement-related, and participant-related threats.
192
What are Field Experiments?
True experiments conducted in real-life settings, offering higher external validity but less control.
193
What is Available Data?
Data that has already been collected by others for purposes other than the research at hand.
194
What is Secondary Data Analysis?
The use of existing data collected for a different purpose to conduct new research.
195
What are Research Archives?
Repositories containing pre-collected data sets for secondary analysis.
196
What are Non-Verbal Sources?
Data from physical objects such as art, clothing, or household items, which are rarely used in social sciences.
197
What are Private Documents?
Records created by individuals or organizations for internal use and not intended for public access.
198
What are Public and Official Records?
Registry data and other publicly maintained records, such as vital statistics and tax records.
199
What is Big Data?
Large-scale quantitative data, often collected in real-time, including digital traces such as social media data.
200
What are Proxy Variables?
Indirect measures used as substitutes for variables of interest when direct measurement is not possible.
201
What are FAIR Principles?
Guidelines for scientific data management aiming to make data Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable.
202
What is Measurement Reactivity?
The tendency of data collection methods to influence the responses or behavior of participants.
203
What is Selective Survival?
Bias introduced when only certain records, artifacts, or documents are preserved over time.
204
What are challenges in Secondary Data Usage?
Challenges include search, measurement constructs, data quality, and completeness.
205
What is Sentiment Analysis?
A method for analyzing text data to classify sentiments as positive, neutral, or negative.
206
What is Selective Disappearance?
Bias caused by selective editing or destruction of records.
207
What is Generalizability?
The extent to which findings from a study can be applied to other populations or settings.
208
What is Evaluation Research?
The application of social research methods to assess social intervention programs and policies.
209
Who are Stakeholders?
Individuals, groups, or organizations with a significant interest in how a program functions.
210
What is Conceptualization?
The process of formulating the problem, answering questions such as 'What?', 'Who?', and 'Where?'.
211
What is Diagnosis?
Determining the extent, nature, and factors affecting a problem using existing data sources.
212
What is Needs Assessment?
Identifying and prioritizing the needs of all stakeholders related to the problem and program goals.
213
What is Social Impact Assessment?
Mapping the scope, intensity, and collateral consequences of a program's impact.
214
What is Formative Evaluation?
Focuses on the development of an intervention, including pre-testing or piloting projects.
215
What is Process Evaluation?
Assesses the fit between a program's design and its implementation, including resources consumed.
216
What is Summative Evaluation?
Consists of Effect Assessment and Efficiency Assessment.
217
What are Quantitative Methods?
Methods that use numerical indicators to track progress, often for comparison and effect assessment.
218
What are Qualitative Methods?
Methods providing depth, detail, and nuance, critical for understanding program operations and process evaluations.
219
What is Treatment-Selection Bias?
Differences in group cooperation levels, including refusals to participate.
220
What is Treatment Diffusion?
The unintentional impact of an intervention on control groups.
221
What is Compensatory Rivalry?
When individuals in control groups improve their performance to compete with treatment groups.
222
What is Social and Political Context?
The influence of stakeholders, including those who initiate, finance, or have an interest in the program outcomes.
