Untitled Deck Flashcards
What are beakers used for?
Beakers are used for mixing, stirring, and heating liquids.
What is the purpose of graduated cylinders?
Graduated cylinders are used for measuring precise volumes of liquids.
What do pipettes do?
Pipettes are used for transferring or dispensing specific amounts of liquid.
What are Erlenmeyer flasks used for?
Erlenmeyer flasks are used for mixing by swirling and can be closed with a stopper.
What is a triple beam balance used for?
A triple beam balance is used to measure mass.
What do thermometers measure?
Thermometers are used to measure temperature.
What is the function of microscopes?
Microscopes are used to observe small objects not visible to the naked eye.
How should you read the volume using the meniscus?
Read the liquid level at the bottom of the meniscus at eye level.
What is the base unit for time?
The base unit for time is the second (s).
What is the base unit for volume?
The base unit for volume is the liter (L).
What is the base unit for length?
The base unit for length is the meter (m).
What is the base unit for mass?
The base unit for mass is the kilogram (kg) or gram (g).
What is the base unit for temperature?
The base unit for temperature is Kelvin (K) or Celsius.
What is scientific notation?
Scientific notation is a way of expressing numbers as a decimal between 1 and 10, multiplied by a power of 10 (e.g., 3,000 = 3 × 10^3).
What are significant figures?
Significant figures include all nonzero digits and zeros that are between significant digits or after a decimal point and significant digits.
What is the metric conversion mnemonic?
M _ _ h _ K _ da (g, m, L) _ d _ c _ m _ _ μ _ _ n.
What is a direct relationship between variables?
A direct relationship occurs when variables increase together, and the graph shows a straight, upward-sloping line.
What is an inverse relationship between variables?
An inverse relationship occurs when one variable increases while the other decreases, and the graph shows a hyperbolic curve.
What is the chemical symbol for Hydrogen?
The chemical symbol for Hydrogen is H.
What is the chemical symbol for Oxygen?
The chemical symbol for Oxygen is O.
What is the chemical symbol for Sodium?
The chemical symbol for Sodium is Na.
What is the chemical symbol for Chlorine?
The chemical symbol for Chlorine is Cl.
What is the end product of a metal and nonmetal bond?
The end product forms an ionic compound.
What does atomic number represent?
The atomic number represents the number of protons in an atom and determines the element’s identity.
What is the valence number for Group 1 elements?
Group 1 elements (Alkali Metals) have 1 valence electron.
What is the valence number for Group 2 elements?
Group 2 elements (Alkaline Earth Metals) have 2 valence electrons.
What is the valence number for Group 13 elements?
Group 13 elements (Boron Group) have 3 valence electrons.
What is the valence number for Group 14 elements?
Group 14 elements (Carbon Group) have 4 valence electrons.
What is the valence number for Group 15 elements?
Group 15 elements (Nitrogen Group) have 5 valence electrons.
What is the valence number for Group 16 elements?
Group 16 elements (Oxygen Group) have 6 valence electrons.
What is the valence number for Group 17 elements?
Group 17 elements (Halogens) have 7 valence electrons.
What is the valence number for Group 18 elements?
Group 18 elements (Noble Gases) have 8 valence electrons, except Helium, which has 2.
What is a hydration shell?
A hydration shell is when water molecules surround and interact with ions, stabilizing them in solution.
What are the characteristics of Group 1 elements?
Group 1 elements are highly reactive metals.
What are the characteristics of Group 17 elements?
Group 17 elements (Halogens) are reactive nonmetals.
What are the characteristics of Group 18 elements?
Group 18 elements (Noble Gases) are inert due to a full valence shell.
Which atomic sub-particles participate in chemical reactions?
Electrons in the outermost energy levels (valence electrons) participate in chemical reactions.
What are ionic bonds?
Ionic bonds are formed when the electronegativity difference between atoms is greater than 2.0, resulting in transferred electrons and charged ions.
What are nonpolar covalent bonds?
Nonpolar covalent bonds are formed when the electronegativity difference is less than 0.4, resulting in equally shared electrons.
What are polar covalent bonds?
Polar covalent bonds are formed when the electronegativity difference is between 0.4 and 2.0, resulting in unequally shared electrons and partial charges.
What are the types of chemical bonds?
The types of chemical bonds include ionic bonds (transfer of electrons), covalent bonds (sharing of electrons), and hydrogen bonds (weak attraction between polar molecules).
What is the relation between atomic, mass, and neutron numbers?
Mass Number = Protons + Neutrons; Atomic Number = Protons; Neutron Number = Mass Number - Atomic Number.
What does Boyle’s Law state?
Boyle’s Law states that when temperature stays constant, as the volume of a gas decreases, its pressure increases (and vice versa).
What does Charles’s Law state?
Charles’s Law states that when pressure stays constant, as the temperature of a gas increases, its volume also increases.
What does Gay-Lussac’s Law state?
Gay-Lussac’s Law states that when volume stays constant, as the temperature of a gas increases, its pressure also increases.
What does Avogadro’s Law state?
Avogadro’s Law states that at constant temperature and pressure, the volume of a gas depends on the number of gas particles (moles).
What is the Ideal Gas Law?
The Ideal Gas Law relates pressure, volume, temperature, and number of particles in a gas to predict how gases behave under different conditions.
What does Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures state?
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures states that the total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the pressures of all the individual gases in the mix.
What does Henry’s Law state?
Henry’s Law states that the amount of gas that dissolves in a liquid depends on the pressure of the gas above the liquid.
What is the volume of a mole of gas at STP?
The volume of a mole of gas at STP is 22.4 L/mol.
What is the metric unit for atmospheric pressure?
The metric unit for atmospheric pressure is Pascal (Pa) or Atmosphere (atm).
What does pH measure?
pH measures hydrogen ion concentration.
What is a Bronsted Acid?
A Bronsted Acid is a proton donor.
What is a Bronsted Base?
A Bronsted Base is a proton acceptor.
What does pH value indicate?
pH measures how acidic or basic a solution is, where lower pH (<7) means acidic, 7 is neutral, and higher pH (>7) means basic.
What is kinetic energy?
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion, depending on the mass and speed (velocity) of the object.
What is a solute?
A solute is the substance dissolved in a mixture (e.g., salt in water).
What is a solvent?
A solvent is the substance in which the solute dissolves (e.g., water).
What is organic chemistry?
Organic chemistry is the study of molecules in life.
What are hydrocarbons?
Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting only of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H).
What are alkanes?
Alkanes are hydrocarbons with single bonds (e.g., propane).
What are alkenes?
Alkenes are hydrocarbons with at least one double bond (e.g., ethene).
What are alkynes?
Alkynes are hydrocarbons with at least one triple bond (e.g., ethyne).
What are aromatics?
Aromatics are organic compounds that contain benzene rings.
What are functional groups in organic families?
Functional groups include hydroxyl (-OH), carbonyl (-C=O), carboxyl (-COOH), amino (-NH2), and phosphate (-PO4).
What is hydrolysis?
Hydrolysis is the process of breaking bonds by adding water; it is a catabolic reaction.
What is dehydration synthesis?
Dehydration synthesis is the process of forming bonds by removing water; it is an anabolic reaction.
What is a synthesis reaction?
A synthesis reaction forms larger molecules (e.g., protein synthesis).
What is a decomposition reaction?
A decomposition reaction breaks molecules into smaller parts (e.g., digestion).
What are amino acids?
Amino acids contain amino (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) groups.
What are fatty acids?
Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains with a carboxyl group.
What is a line-angle formula?
A line-angle formula uses lines to represent bonds, with carbon atoms at the line ends.
What is a condensed formula?
A condensed formula summarizes groups (e.g., CH3CH2OH).
What is a molecular formula?
A molecular formula represents the number of each type of atom in a molecule (e.g., CH4).
What is a structural formula?
A structural formula shows the arrangement of atoms in a molecule.
What is an essential nutrient?
An essential nutrient is a nutrient that the body cannot synthesize and must be obtained from the diet.
What is a hexose?
A hexose is a six-carbon sugar (e.g., glucose).
What is ribose?
Ribose is a five-carbon sugar.
What is a triose?
A triose is a three-carbon sugar.
What are monosaccharides?
Monosaccharides are single sugar units (e.g., glucose, fructose).
What are disaccharides?
Disaccharides are two sugar units (e.g., sucrose, lactose).
What are polysaccharides?
Polysaccharides are many sugar units (e.g., starch, cellulose, glycogen).
What is the function of monosaccharides?
Monosaccharides serve as a quick energy source.
What is the function of disaccharides?
Disaccharides are used for energy transport/storage.
What is the function of polysaccharides?
Polysaccharides are used for energy storage (e.g., glycogen) and structural support (e.g., cellulose).
What is the molecular composition of triglycerides?
Triglycerides consist of glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains.
What are triglycerides?
Triglycerides are a subgroup of lipids primarily used for energy storage in the body.
What are saturated hydrocarbons?
Saturated hydrocarbons have single bonds only and are solid at room temperature (e.g., butter).
What are unsaturated hydrocarbons?
Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain double bonds and are liquid at room temperature (e.g., olive oil).
What are peptide bonds?
Peptide bonds link amino acids in proteins.
What are glycosidic bonds?
Glycosidic bonds link monosaccharides in carbohydrates.
What are ester bonds?
Ester bonds link glycerol and fatty acids in triglycerides.
What are phosphodiester bonds?
Phosphodiester bonds are found in nucleic acids (DNA/RNA).
What are the polar components of a cell membrane?
The polar components of a cell membrane are phosphate heads (hydrophilic).
What are the nonpolar components of a cell membrane?
The nonpolar components of a cell membrane are fatty acid tails (hydrophobic).
What is the sequence of events in protein synthesis?
The sequence of events is transcription (nucleus): DNA → mRNA, followed by translation (ribosome): mRNA → protein.
What are the organelles involved in protein synthesis?
The organelles involved are the nucleus, ribosomes, rough ER, and Golgi apparatus.
What is the function of mRNA?
mRNA carries the genetic code that was picked up from DNA.
What is the function of tRNA?
tRNA transfers amino acids to ribosomes.
What is the function of rRNA?
rRNA makes up the ribosome’s structural and functional components.
What is the primary structure of proteins?
The primary structure is the sequence of amino acids.
What is the secondary structure of proteins?
The secondary structure involves folding into alpha-helices or beta-sheets.
What is the tertiary structure of proteins?
The tertiary structure is the 3D folding due to R-group interactions.
What is the quaternary structure of proteins?
The quaternary structure is the association of multiple polypeptides.
What is a mutation?
A mutation is a change/error in DNA base sequences.
What suffix do enzymes typically end with?
Enzymes typically end in -ase (e.g., lactase, amylase).
What suffix do sugars typically end with?
Sugars typically end in -ose (e.g., glucose, sucrose).
What is the structure of an enzyme?
An enzyme consists of an active site where substrates bind.
How do substrates relate to enzymes?
Substrates fit into the enzyme’s active site like a ‘lock and key’ or via ‘induced fit’ for catalysis.
What factors affect enzyme activity?
Factors include temperature (optimal range), pH (optimal pH), substrate concentration (increases until saturation), and inhibitors (competitive or non-competitive).
What is denaturation?
Denaturation is the process in which a protein loses its three-dimensional structure due to heat, pH changes, or chemicals, while its amino acid sequence remains unchanged.
What is the structure of DNA?
DNA has a double helix structure with a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases.
What are the base pairing rules in DNA?
Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T), and Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C). In RNA, Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (U).
What are redox reactions?
Redox reactions involve oxidation (loss of electrons) and reduction (gain of electrons).
How does DNA structure enable replication?
The double-helix structure allows complementary base pairing, enabling accurate replication.
What are the stages of cellular respiration?
The stages of cellular respiration are Glycolysis, Pyruvate Oxidation, Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle), and Oxidative Phosphorylation.
What are the start and end products of glycolysis?
Start: Glucose → End: 2 3-C Pyruvates, 2 ATP, 2 NADH.
What are the start and end products of pyruvate oxidation?
Start: Pyruvate → End: Acetyl-CoA, CO₂, NADH.
What are the start and end products of the citric acid cycle?
Start: Acetyl-CoA → End: CO₂, NADH, FADH₂, ATP.
What are the start and end products of oxidative phosphorylation?
Start: NADH, FADH₂ → End: ATP, H₂O.
What is the structure of a mitochondrion?
The outer membrane allows molecule exchange, the inner membrane is the site of oxidative phosphorylation, the intermembrane space is between membranes, and the matrix is where the Citric Acid Cycle occurs.
What is chemiosmosis?
Chemiosmosis is the movement of H⁺ ions across the inner mitochondrial membrane via ATP synthase to produce ATP.
What is the role of coenzymes?
Coenzymes, such as NAD⁺/NADH and FAD/FADH₂, act as electron and proton carriers during redox reactions.
What is tonicity?
Tonicity refers to the effect of a solution on cell volume changes.
What happens in a hypotonic solution?
In a hypotonic solution, water enters the cell, causing it to swell (lysis).
What happens in a hypertonic solution?
In a hypertonic solution, water leaves the cell, causing it to shrink (crenation).
What is the definition of ATP synthesis?
Movement of H⁺ ions across the inner mitochondrial membrane via ATP synthase to produce ATP.
Proton Gradient: Drives ATP synthesis.
What are examples of coenzymes?
NAD⁺/NADH, FAD/FADH₂.
What is the function of coenzymes?
Electron and proton carriers during redox reactions.
What is the reduced state of coenzymes?
Gains electrons/H (e.g., NADH).
What is the oxidized state of coenzymes?
Loses electrons/H (e.g., NAD⁺).
What happens to cells in a hypotonic solution?
Water enters the cell; it swells (lysis).
What happens to cells in a hypertonic solution?
Water leaves the cell; it shrinks (crenation).
What is the effect of an isotonic solution on cell volume?
No net water movement; cell volume remains constant.
What is the percent sodium chloride in normal saline?
0.9% NaCl solution.
What are the characteristics of Bacteria?
Prokaryotic, unicellular (has no membrane bound nucleus and can live in extreme temperatures).
What are the characteristics of Archaea?
Prokaryotic, extreme environments (has no membrane bound nucleus and can live in extreme temperatures).
What are the characteristics of Eukarya?
Eukaryotic, includes plants, animals, fungi, protists (has a membrane bound nucleus).
What is negative feedback in homeostasis?
Restores balance by reversing changes (e.g., body temperature regulation).
What is positive feedback in homeostasis?
Amplifies changes (e.g., childbirth contractions).
What are the anatomical levels of organization?
Atom, Molecule, Organelle, Cell, Tissue, Organ, Organ System, Organism.
What is a tissue?
Groups of similar cells with a common function.
What is an organ?
Composed of tissues working together for specific functions.
What is the pleura?
Surrounds lungs.
What is the pericardium?
Surrounds heart.
What is the peritoneum?
Surrounds abdominal organs.
What organs are located in the Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)?
Liver, gallbladder.
What organs are located in the Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)?
Stomach, spleen.
What organs are located in the Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)?
Appendix, right ovary.
What organs are located in the Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)?
Left ovary, sigmoid colon.
What is the anatomical position?
Standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms facing forward, feet flat and parallel.
What does supine mean?
Lying on your back, facing upward, with palms facing up.
What does prone mean?
Lying on your stomach, facing downward, with palms facing down.
What does superior mean?
Toward the head (e.g., the heart is superior to the stomach).
What does inferior mean?
Toward the feet (e.g., the stomach is inferior to the lungs).
What does anterior (ventral) mean?
Toward the front (e.g., the sternum is anterior to the spine).
What does posterior (dorsal) mean?
Toward the back (e.g., the spine is posterior to the sternum).
What does medial mean?
Toward the midline (e.g., the nose is medial to the eyes).
What does lateral mean?
Away from the midline (e.g., the arms are lateral to the chest).
What does proximal mean?
Closer to the point of attachment (e.g., the elbow is proximal to the wrist).
What does distal mean?
Farther from the point of attachment (e.g., the fingers are distal to the elbow).
What is a body cavity?
A space within the body that houses and protects internal organs.
What organs are located in the dorsal body cavity?
Cranial Cavity: Contains the brain.
Spinal Cavity: Contains the spinal cord.
What organs are located in the ventral body cavity?
Thoracic Cavity: Contains the lungs, heart (mediastinum).
Abdominopelvic Cavity: Contains stomach, liver, intestines.
What organs are located in the pelvic cavity?
Contains bladder, reproductive organs.
What organs are part of the respiratory system?
Lungs, trachea, bronchi.
What organs are part of the circulatory system?
Heart, blood vessels.
What organs are part of the digestive system?
Stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas.
What organs are part of the nervous system?
Brain, spinal cord, nerves.
What organs are part of the muscular system?
Skeletal muscles, tendons.
What organs are part of the skeletal system?
Bones, cartilage, ligaments.
What organs are part of the endocrine system?
Glands like thyroid, adrenal, pituitary.
What organs are part of the cardiovascular system?
Heart, blood vessels, blood.
What organs are part of the urinary system?
Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra.
What organs are part of the skeletomuscular system?
Cartilage, bones, joints, skeletal muscles, tendons.
What do superior/inferior refer to?
Refer to placement along the vertical axis.
What do anterior/posterior refer to?
Refer to front/back orientation.
What do medial/lateral refer to?
Refer to closeness to the body’s midline.
What do proximal/distal refer to?
Refer to location relative to a limb’s point of attachment.
What is the true arm?
The region between the shoulder and elbow (humerus).
What is the true leg?
The region between the knee and ankle (tibia and fibula).
What comprises the upper limb?
Shoulder, arm, forearm, hand.
What comprises the lower limb?
Thigh, leg, foot.
What is the sagittal plane?
Divides the body into left and right sections.
What is the frontal (coronal) plane?
Divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections.
What is the transverse (horizontal) plane?
Divides the body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) sections.
What are the phases of the cell cycle?
Interphase (longest phase, 90% of the cycle), Mitotic Phase.
What occurs during interphase?
G1: Cell growth.
S: DNA replication.
G2: Cell growth and preparation for mitosis.
What happens during prophase?
Chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form.
What happens during prometaphase?
The nuclear envelope breaks down, and spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of chromosomes.
What happens during metaphase?
Chromosomes align at the cell’s equator.
What happens during anaphase?
Sister chromatids separate to opposite poles.
What happens during telophase?
Nuclear envelopes re-form; chromosomes decondense.
What is cytokinesis?
Division of the cytoplasm into two daughter cells.
What is chromatin?
Loosely packed DNA found in the nucleus during interphase.
What is a chromosome?
Condensed, tightly packed DNA seen during cell division.
