Untitled Deck Flashcards
1
Q
What is Fire Behavior?
A
The manner in which a fire reacts to the influences of fuel, weather, and topography.
2
Q
What is Fuel?
A
Combustible material that feeds a fire, including vegetation such as grass, leaves, ground litter, plants, shrubs, and trees.
3
Q
What are the States of Matter?
A
The forms in which matter can exist: solid, liquid, and gas. Fire behavior is influenced by the state of matter of the fuel, as solids must be converted to gases before they can burn.
4
Q
What is Pyrolysis?
A
The process of a solid fuel, like wood, converting to a gas or vapor due to heat. This is essential for combustion to occur.
5
Q
What is the Fire Triangle?
A
The three elements required for fire: oxygen, heat, and fuel. Removing any one of these elements extinguishes the fire.
6
Q
What is the Fire Tetrahedron?
A
A more modern representation of the elements of fire, adding a fourth component: chemical chain reaction to the fire triangle.
7
Q
What is a Ventilation-Limited Fire?
A
A fire that has insufficient oxygen for efficient burning, often characterized by dark, pressurized, turbulent smoke. Opening doors or windows in such a fire can lead to a rapid increase in intensity.
8
Q
What is a Fuel Bed?
A
The arrangement and types of fuels present, significantly impacting fire behavior. A continuous fuel bed, with brush connecting to the lower limbs of trees, allows for easy vertical fire spread.
9
Q
What is Torching?
A
When a single tree or a small group of trees ignites and burns from the bottom up, often due to intense ground fuels.
10
Q
What is a Crown Fire?
A
Fire spreading through the crowns of trees or shrubs, often independent of a surface fire. This is driven by intense energy and creates a strong convective column, drawing in air and increasing wind speed.
11
Q
What is an Ember?
A
Small, burning pieces of fuel that can be carried by wind and ignite new fires far from the main fire front. The size and ability of embers to travel are influenced by the intensity of the fire and wind conditions.
12
Q
What is Defensible Space?
A
A buffer zone around a structure, cleared of flammable vegetation to reduce the risk of ignition from wildfire.
13
Q
What is Fuel Treatment?
A
Modifying the fuel bed, typically by reducing fuel loads and continuity, to alter fire behavior and decrease intensity and spread.
14
Q
What are Aerial Fuels?
A
All live and dead vegetation in the forest canopy or above the surface, including tree branches, twigs, cones, snags, moss, and high brush.
15
Q
What are Surface Fuels?
A
The combustible materials on the ground, such as leaves, needles, twigs, bark, cones, branches, grass, and downed logs.
16
Q
What are Ground Fuels?
A
Combustible materials beneath the surface litter, including duff, roots, and decayed wood. These fuels support smoldering combustion.
17
Q
What are Fine (Light) Fuels?
A
Small-diameter fuels, less than 1/4 inch, with a high surface area-to-volume ratio that ignite easily and burn rapidly. These fuels include grasses, leaves, twigs, small shrubs, light brush, and pine needles.
Fine fuels react rapidly to changes in weather. They can go from being too wet to burn to being dangerously dry in just a few hours of sun and wind. Because they’re small and have a high surface area relative to their volume, fine fuels ignite much more readily than larger materials like logs or thick branches. They are often what carries a fire across the landscape. Think of them as the kindling that allows fire to move from one area to another.
Fire professionals pay close attention to fine fuel moisture content because it’s one of the best predictors of fire behavior. When fine fuels have low moisture content (below 6-10%), conditions can become extremely dangerous.
18
Q
What are Heavy Fuels?
A
Large, dense fuels that include trees, logs, large branches, and stumps. These fuels burn slowly but release a lot of heat and can sustain a fire for long periods.
Aka “Coarse Fuels”)
Characteristics: Heavy fuels don’t ignite as quickly as fine fuels but can burn intensely and for longer durations, making them significant contributors to prolonged fire intensity and spread.
Examples: Fallen trees, large branches, thick logs, and tree stumps.
Data Implications for COP: Heavy fuels are important for modeling long-term fire behavior. Areas with heavy fuels can lead to persistent hot spots, even after the main fire has passed.
19
Q
What are Ladder Fuels?
A
Vegetation that provides vertical continuity between surface fuels and the crowns of trees, allowing fire to climb easily into the canopy.
20
Q
What is a Spot Fire?
A
A fire ignited outside the main fire perimeter by embers carried by wind. These fires can rapidly expand the fire area and pose challenges for control.
21
Q
Aerial Fuels
A
All live and dead vegetation in the forest canopy or above surface fuel level including tree branches, twigs,
cones, snags, moss and high brush.
22
Q
Airtanker
A
Fixed‐wing aircraft capable of dropping fire retardant.
23
Q
Anchor Point
A
Advantageous location from which to start building a fire line.
24
Q
Backfire
A
Fire set along the inner edge of a fireline to consume fuel in the path of an existing wildfire. Operation is
designed to change the direction of or slow down the existing wildfire by removing its fuel.
25
Blow Up
Sudden increase in fire intensity or rate of spread that is strong enough to prevent direct control or upset
control plans.
26
Brush
Collective term for vegetation dominated by shrubby, woody plants or low growing trees; usually undesirable for
livestock or timber management.
27
Brush Fire
Fire burning in vegetation that is predominantly shrubs, brush and scrub growth.
28
Burn Ban
Declared ban on outdoor burning, usually because of high‐to‐extreme fire danger.
29
Burn Out
Setting fire inside a control line to widen it or consume the fuel between the edge of the fire and control line.
30
Burning Conditions
Combined environmental factors that affect fire behavior in a specific fuel type.
31
Burning Period
Time of the day when fires spread most rapidly; typically from 10 a.m. to sundown.
32
Candle or Candling
A single tree in a very small clump of trees that is burning from the bottom up.
33
Chain
Unit of linear measurement equal to 66 feet; often used to describe the length of a fireline or the forward rate of spread on a fire. Eighty chains equal one mile.
34
Closure
Legal restriction — but not necessarily elimination — of specific activities such as smoking, camping or access to a designated area.
35
Complex
Two or more individual fires located in the same general area and assigned to a single incident commander or
unified command.
36
Confine a Fire
Least aggressive wildfire suppression strategy; typically allows the wildfire to burn itself out within established,
natural boundaries such as rocky ridges, streams or roads under prevailing conditions.
37
Contain a Fire
When a fire is contained, it is surrounded by a fuel break. This break can include natural barriers as well as line
constructed manually or mechanically. The fire is not extinguished at this point.
38
Control a Fire
When a fire is controlled, it is surrounded by control line, its forward progression has been stopped and it is not
expected to escape under foreseeable conditions. It is not completely extinguished, but it no longer poses a
direct threat to surrounding homes or property.
39
Creeping Fire
Fire burning on the ground with a low flame and spreading slowly.
40
Crowning Fire
Movement of fire through the tops of trees and shrubs, usually independent of the surface fire.
41
Curing
Drying and browning of herbaceous vegetation or slash.
42
Dead Fuels
Fuels with no living tissue, which means moisture content is governed almost entirely by atmospheric moisture
(relative humidity and precipitation), dry‐bulb temperature and solar radiation.
43
Debris Burning
Fire is intentionally set to clear the land or eliminate garbage and other debris.
44
Defensible Space
Natural or manmade area spanning at least 30 feet around a structure where combustible material has been cleared or removed, providing a barrier between you and an advancing wildfire.
45
Direct Attack
Any treatment of burning fuel such as wetting, smothering or chemically quenching the fire or by physically
separating burned and unburned fuel.
46
Dozer
Any tracked vehicle with a front‐mounted blade is used for exposing mineral soil.
47
Dozer Line
Fireline constructed by the front blade of a dozer.
48
Drip Torch
Hand‐held device used to ignite fires by dripping flaming liquid torch fuel on the materials to be burned. Torch
fuel generally is a mix of diesel and gasoline.
49
Drop Zone
The target area for air tankers, helitankers, and cargo dropping.
50
Drought Index
Number representing the difference between normal and current moisture conditions. Net
effect of evaporation, transpiration and precipitation in producing cumulative moisture depletion in deep duff or upper soil layers.
51
Duff
Layer of decomposing organic materials lying just below the litter layer of freshly fallen twigs, needles and leaves, and just above the bare, mineral soil.
52
Ecosystem
The area of land is distinguished by certain physical features, as well as its ability to sustain certain plants and animals.
53
Energy Release Component
Computed total heat released per unit area (British thermal units per square foot) within the fire front at the head of a moving fire. Used by fire managers to assess the potential fire behavior in forest fuels.
54
Engine
Any ground-level machine providing specified levels of pumping, water, and hose capacity.
55
Engine Crew
Firefighters assigned to a type of engine. Minimum crew make up is determined by engine type as outlined in the Fireline Handbook.
56
Entrapment
Situation in which crews are caught unexpectedly in a life‐threatening position with planned escape routes or safety zones compromised, likely because of fire behavior. Entrapment may or may not result in fire shelter deployment or injuries.
57
Escape Route
Planned route allowing firefighters safe passage to a designated safety zone. When escape routes deviate from a defined, physical path, they should be clearly flagged.
58
Escaped Fire
Fire that continues to spread despite initial attack fire suppression efforts. Also applies to prescribed fire that
exceeds its prescription.
59
Extended Attack
Suppression activity for a wildfire that has not been contained or controlled by initial attack or contingency forces. Additional firefighting resources generally are needed for extended attack.
60
Faller
A person who falls (cuts down) trees. Also called a sawyer or cutter.
61
Fell
Cut or knock down; usually refers to a tree.
62
Fingers of Fire
Long, narrow extensions of a fire projecting from the main body.
63
Fire Behavior
Manner in which a fire reacts to fuel, weather and topography.
64
Fire Behavior Forecast
Prediction of probable fire behavior, usually by fire behavior analysts.
65
Fire Break
Natural or constructed barrier used to stop or check fires that may occur or to provide a control line from which to work.
66
Firebrand
Embers or burning material that can be transported by wind and potentially start new fires at a distance from the main fire. Associated with more intense wind conditions.
67
Fire Cache
Supply of fire tools and equipment assembled at a strategic point for exclusive use in fire suppression.
68
Fire Crew
Organized group of firefighters under the supervision of a crew leader or other designated official.
69
Fire Danger
Probability — based on weather, fuel moisture and other factors — of a fire occurring, and the likelihood of it spreading. Danger is categorized as low, moderate, high or extreme.
70
Fire Dependent Species
Plant and animal species that are dependent on fire to survive. Lodgepole pine is an example; heat from the fire opens pine cones, allowing seeds to spread and naturally reforest an area.
71
Fire Front
Part of a fire within which continuous flaming combustion is taking place. Unless otherwise specified, the fire
front is assumed to be the leading edge of the fire perimeter. In ground fires, the fire front may be mainly
smoldering combustion.
72
Fire Intensity
Amount of heat generated by a fire.
73
Fire Line
Linear fire barrier that is scraped or dug down to mineral soil — by hand or mechanically. More generally, the
term “on the fireline” is used to describe working a fire.
74
Fire Perimeter
Entire outer edge or boundary of a fire.
75
Fire Plow
Heavy duty plowshare or disc usually pulled behind a tractor to construct a fireline.
76
Fire Season
Period or periods of the year when wildfires are likely to occur, spread and affect resource values sufficient to warrant organized fire management activities.
77
Fire Shelter
Safety device used as a last resort by wildland firefighters who are trapped by wildfire. The small, aluminized tent provides protection by reflecting radiant heat and offering a small amount of breathable air.
78
Fire Triangle
Instructional aid in which the sides of a triangle are used to represent the three factors — oxygen, heat and fuel—necessary for combustion and flame production. Removal of any of the three factors ceases flame production.
79
Fire Weather
Weather conditions that influence fire ignition, behavior and suppression.
80
Fire Weather Watch
Term used by National Weather Service fire weather forecasters to notify fire managers, usually 24 to 72 hours in advance, that current and developing meteorological conditions may evolve into dangerous fire weather.
81
Firefighting Resources
All people and major items of equipment that can or potentially could be assigned to fires.
82
Flame Length
Distance between the flame tip and the midpoint of the flame depth at the base of the flame (generally the
ground surface); an indicator of fire intensity.
83
Flanks of a Fire
Parts of a fire's perimeter that are roughly parallel to the main direction of spread.
84
Flare Up
Any sudden increase in fire spread or intensity. Unlike a blow‐up, a flare‐up lasts a relatively short time and does not radically change control plans.
85
Flash Fuels
Fuels — grass, leaves, draped pine needles, fern, tree moss and some kinds of slash — that ignite readily and are consumed rapidly when dry. Also called fine or light fuels.
86
Fuel
Combustible material — such as grass, leaves, ground litter, plants, shrubs, trees and other vegetation — that feed a fire.
87
Fuel Moisture
Quantity of moisture in fuel expressed as a percentage of the weight when thoroughly dried at 212 degrees Fahrenheit.
88
Fuel Reduction
Removing fuels to reduce the likelihood of a future wildfire, or make it easier to control if one should occur.
89
Fuel Reduction
Removing fuels to reduce the likelihood of a future wildfire, or make it easier to control if one should occur.
90
Fuel Type
Refers to the type of vegetation in which a fire is burning. Used in predicting fire behavior and determining what effects a fire may have in a given area.
91
Green Up
Beginning of a new cycle of plant growth.
92
Ground Fuel
All combustible materials below the surface litter — including duff, tree or shrub roots, punchy wood, peat and saw dust — that normally support a glowing combustion without flame.
93
Hand Line
Fireline built with hand tools.
94
Head of Fire
Side of fire with the fastest rate of spread.
95
Heavy Fuels
Large-diameter fuels — such as snags, logs, and large limbs — ignite and burn slower than flash fuels.
96
Heavy Helicopter
Large helicopter capable of dropping water via a bucket or tank in its belly; generally capable of carrying 800 to 1,000 gallons of water, though some can carry up to 2,000 gallons.
97
Helibase
Main location for parking, fueling, maintaining and loading helicopters.
98
Helispot
Temporary landing spot for helicopters.
99
Helitack
Helicopter used to transport crews, equipment and fire retardants to the fire during its initial stages.
100
Helitack Crew
Group of firefighters trained in the technical and logistical use of helicopters for fire suppression.
101
Helitanker
Helicopter equipped with a fixed tank in its belly and capably of dropping at least 1,100 gallons of water.
102
Herbaceous
live vegetation composed of non-woody plants like grasses, herbs, and other non-woody plant materials. Typically low-growing. Can be live or dead/cured. Moisture content changes more rapidly than woody fuels.
103
104
Hotshot Crew
Highly‐trained fire crew used primarily to build fireline by hand.
105
Hotspot
Particularly active part of the fire.
106
Incident
Manmade or natural disaster — wildfire, hurricane, flood, explosion, etc. — that requires emergency responders to prevent or reduce casualties and damages.
107
Incident Command Post
Field headquarters for tactical, on‐the‐ground operations; overseen by incident commander and his staff.
108
Incident Command System
Set of facilities, equipment, personnel and procedures integrated into a common organizational structure.
Allows emergency responders to communicate with each other, better manage their resources and effectively accomplish the incident goals.
109
Incident Commander
Person responsible for all assigned aspects of the emergency response.
110
Incident Management Team
Incident commander and appropriate general or command staff assigned to manage an incident.
111
Incident Objectives
Guiding statements that help fire managers determine appropriate strategies and tactics. Based on realistic expectations of what can be accomplished when all allocated resources have been effectively deployed.
112
initial Attack
Actions taken by the first firefighters to arrive on the scene.
113
Keech Bryam Drought Index (KBDI)
Drought index based on precipitation and soil moisture and used to determine wildfire potential. Ranges from 0
(no moisture depletion) to 800 (absolutely dry conditions).
114
Knock Down
Reduce the flame or heat on vigorously‐burning parts of a fire edge.
115
LCES
Lookout, Communication, Escape Route, Safety Zone; acronym used to describe the elements of a safety system
used by wildland firefighters to routinely assess their current situation.
116
Ladder Fuels
Fuels that carry fire from the ground to the tree tops, often leading to crowning.
117
Lead Plane
Aircraft that directs tactical deployment of airtankers. Makes initial dry run over a targeted area to check wind
and smoke conditions and topography, and then leads airtankers to their targets and supervises their drops.
118
Litter
Top layer of the forest or grassland floor, composed of loose debris of dead sticks, branches, twigs and recently
fallen leaves or needles.
119
Live Fuels
Living plants — such as trees, grasses and shrubs — in which the seasonal moisture content cycle is controlled
largely by internal physiological mechanisms rather than by external weather influences.
120
Mineral Soil
Soil with little combustible material; found in the layers below the predominantly organic horizons.
121
Mobilization
Process and procedures used by federal, state and local organizations for activating, assembling and
transporting resources that have been requested to respond to an incident.
122
Modular Airborne Firefighting System (MAFFS)
A unit mounted inside a C‐130 cargo aircraft for use in dropping retardant on wildfires.
123
Moisture of Extinction
Fuel moisture content at which a fire will no longer sustain itself or spread. Represents the point where fuels are too wet to burn effectively. Varies depending on the fuel type and characteristics.
124
Mop-up
Extinguishing or removing burning material on a fire after it’s been controlled. Designed to make the fire safer
and reduce residual smoke.
125
Mutual Aid Agreement
Written agreement between agencies and jurisdictions allowing them to assist one another during times of
need.
126
National Wildfire Coordinating Group
Tasked with coordinating the effectiveness of all wildfire activities, providing a forum to discuss and resolve
problems and certifying all courses in the National Fire Curriculum. Formed under the direction of the Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior and made up of representatives of the U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of Indian Affairs, National Park Service, U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service and Association of State Foresters.
127
Nomex
Trade name for a fire-resistant, synthetic material used in the manufacturing of flight suits and wildland
firefighting pants and shirts.
128
Operational Period
Time period allotted for execution of a given set of tactical actions; usually not more than 24 hours.
129
Overhead
People assigned to supervisory positions including incident commanders, command and general staff, directors,
supervisors and unit leaders.
130
Overstory
The layer of taller trees that form the upper canopy of a forest or woodland. Consists of taller, mature trees that create a canopy above lower vegetation.
Can include different tree species like pines, hardwoods, or mixed forests.
Influences fire spread and intensity. Affects wind speeds at ground level. Can contribute to crown fire potential. Provides shade and affects fuel moisture
131
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Clothing and equipment designed to keep wildland firefighters safe. Includes but isn’t limited to 8‐inch high
leather boots, fire shelter, hard hat, goggles, ear plugs, Nomex pants and shirt, and leather gloves.
132
Prescribed Fire
Fire ignited intentionally under certain, predetermined conditions to meet specific land management objectives
related to hazardous fuels reduction or habitat improvement. A written prescribed fire plan must be approved prior to the fire, and National Environmental Policy Act requirements must be met.
133
Prescribed Fire Plan
Comprehensive plan developed by fire and land managers before a prescribed fire. Outlines predicted weather
and fire conditions, as well as predicted fire behavior and the risks associated with the burn. Provides the burn
boss with information needed to implement the project.
134
Prescription
Measurable criteria that define the conditions — fuel moisture, wind, temperature, relative humidity — under
which a prescribed fire may be ignited, and guide the selection of appropriate management responses.
135
Prevention
Activities — public education, law enforcement, fuel reduction, etc. — aimed at reducing wildfire occurrence.
136
Project Fire
Fire that is big enough in size and complexity that it requires a large organization of people to manage it and a
prolonged attack to extinguish it.
137
Rate of Spread
The speed with which a fire grows or spreads; usually measured in miles or chains per hour.
138
Reburn
Fire burning in a previously burned area. Generally, fire already has swept through, but the area still contains
flammable fuels that ignite when conditions are favorable.
139
Red Card
Wallet‐sized card that certifies a person is trained and qualified to perform specific jobs on wildfires and other
incidents.
140
Red Flag Warning
Fire weather forecaster term alerts the public to an ongoing or imminent critical fire weather pattern.
141
Rehabilitation
Activities necessary to repair damage caused by wildfires or fire suppression.
142
Relative Humidity
Ratio of the actual amount of moisture in the air compared to the maximum amount of moisture the air would
contain if it were saturated. Expressed as a percentage. Low relative humidity results in dryer conditions and increased fire danger.
0% means the air is completely dry
100% means the air is totally saturated and can't hold any more water vapor (this is when you might see dew form)
When temperature and humidity cross over (temperature in °F gets higher than humidity percentage), it often signals dangerous fire conditions
143
Remote Automatic Weather Station
Automated weather stations located in various places that take and record weather readings hourly.
Information is used in the National Fire Danger Rating System.
144
Resources
People, equipment, supplies and services needed to manage a fire.
145
Resource Order
Formal request for firefighting or support resources.
146
Retardant
A chemical agent that reduces the flammability of combustibles.
147
Run
The rapid advance of the head of fire includes a marked change in fireline intensity and rate of spread.
148
Running
Rapidly spreading surface fire with a well‐defined head.
149
Safety Zone
Large area that is cleared of flammable materials, giving firefighters a place to escape to if a wildfire breaks
through the control line.
150
Size-up
Evaluation of the fire to determine what suppression efforts will be needed.
151
Slash
Dead, woody material and debris left behind after logging or forest management activities. Typically branches, tree tops, and other woody debris.
152
Slop Over
Fire that crosses a control line or natural barrier that was intended to contain it.
153
Snag
Standing dead tree or part of a dead tree.
154
Smolderimg
Fire burning without flame and barely spreading.
155
Spot Fire
Fire ignited by sparks or embers that are blown outside of the perimeter of the main fire.
156
Spotting
Fire producing sparks or embers that are carried by the wind and start new fires outside the perimeter of the
main fire.
157
Staging Area
Established locations where resources can be placed while awaiting a tactical assignment.
158
Strike Team
Team composed of several of the same type of resources.
159
Suppression
All work related to extinguishing or containing a fire.
160
Surface Fuels
Loose litter on the soil surface, normally consisting of fallen leaves or needles, twigs, bark, cones and small
branches. Can be interspersed with grasses, forbs, low and medium shrubs, tree seedlings, heavier branches,
downed logs and stumps.
161
Tactics
Plan to deploy and direct resources on an incident to accomplish objectives designated by strategy.
162
Task Force
A team composed of different types of resources but with a single purpose.
163
Temporary Flight Restrictions
Restricts the operation of nonessential aircraft in the airspace around an incident; generally requested by an
agency and put into effect by the Federal Aviation Administration.
164
Torching
Tree or small group of trees that suddenly erupt into flames, usually burning from the bottom up.
165
Type
Capability of a firefighting resource. Type 1 usually carries the greatest capability due to power, size and
capacity.
166
Uncontrolled Burn
Any fire that threatens to destroy life, property, or natural resources.
167
Volunteer Fire Department
Fire department with members who volunteer their time and are not paid.
168
Water Tender
Ground vehicle capable of transporting specified quantities of water.
169
Wet Line
Line of water or water and retardant sprayed along the ground to serve as a temporary control line to stop a low
intensity fire.
170
Wildfire
Any non‐structure fire — other than a prescribed fire — that occurs in the wildland.
171
Wildland
Area in which development is essentially non‐existent except for roads, railroads, power lines and similar
transportation or utility structures.
172
Work Capacity (Pack) Test
Physical fitness test required for wildland firefighters, as well as anyone else who may be working on the fireline.
Test generally consists of walking a specified distance with or without a weighted pack in a predetermined
amount of time.
173
National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC)
The employees at NIFC have one goal: to ensure wildland fire personnel and other emergency services employees across the nation receive the support and information they need to do their jobs in a safe, effective, and efficient manner. Cooperation and collaboration among national and state wildland fire entities. Federal agencies represented at NIFC are BIA, BLM, U.S. Fire Administration (USFA), USFWS, USFS, National Association of State Foresters (NASF), NWS, and NPS. In 2008, a liaison position representing the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) was established. The BLM is the host agency, but there is not a single director for the fire center. NIFC governance is conducted by each agency’s directors or their representatives. Located at Boise Airport.
174
National Interagency Coordination Center (NICC)
Brokerage for resource orders across Geographic Area Coordination Centers (GACCs).
175
Three Tiers of Fire Dispatch
The national dispatch and coordination system has three tiers for resource ordering. The first level consists of about 250 local dispatch centers scattered throughout the nation. When the needs of a wildfire or other emergency become more than local dispatch offices can handle, they turn to the next level up, one of ten Geographic Area Coordination Centers (GACC) to fill the needs. Between the local dispatch offices and GACCs, tens of thousands of wildfires are coordinated and the needs of fire managers are met. If individual wildfires or overall activity becomes more than a GACC can manage, NICC is called in. NICC has authority for the entire country. That could mean mobilizing a state crew in Alaska for deployment in Florida or sending a helicopter in Arizona to a wildfire in Utah. NICC’s work ranges from the individual – say a finance expert in Montana dispatched to a wildfire in southern California – to moving hundreds of firefighters from one location to another. A vast amount of information is needed to locate, track, monitor and help with arrangements for equipment, aircraft, teams of wildland fire specialists, contract crews, engines and more. In the most difficult times, at Preparedness Level 5, when requests are unable to be filled, NICC may call on international partners to share fire resources. NICC has standing agreements with the governments of Australia, Canada, Mexico and New Zealand.
176
Geographic Area Coordination Centers (GACC)
Ten across the country.
177
National Multi-Agency Coordinating Group (NMAC)
Comprised of members who have been delegated authority to provide an essential management mechanism for national level strategic coordination to ensure that firefighting resources are efficiently and appropriately managed in a cost-effective manner. Their mission is to provide national wildland fire operations management, priority setting, and resource allocation through multi-agency coordination. The group is represented by leadership from the following agencies:
United States Forest Service
Bureau of Land Management
Bureau of Indian Affairs
United States Fish and Wildlife Service
National Park Service
United States Fire Administration
National Association of State Foresters
178
Preparedness Level 1 (PL 1)
Geographic areas accomplish incident management objectives by utilizing local resources with little or no national support. There is little risk of drawing down capability in any geographic area to support incident operations.
Longest duration at PL 1: 275 days from October 7, 2008 to July 8, 2009.
5-year average number of days per year at PL 1: 193.
10-year average number of days per year at PL 1: 208.
179
Preparedness Level 2 (PL 2)
Active geographic areas may require national support to accomplish incident management objectives. Resource capability remains stable enough nationally to sustain incident operations and meet objectives in active geographic areas. There is a low to moderate probability that drawing down resources from non-active geographic areas may pose a risk should existing conditions change.
Earliest day in the year at PL 2: January 4, 2006.
Latest day in the year at PL 2: December 20, 2017.
Longest duration at PL 2: 149 days from May 14, 1997 to October 9, 1997.
Years level never moved above PL 2: 1993, 1997, 2010.
5-year average number of days per year at PL 2: 90.
10-year average number of days per year at PL 2: 80.
180
Preparedness Level 3 (PL 3)
Mobilization of resources nationally is required to sustain incident management operations in active geographic areas. National priorities are established to address the demand for shared resources among active geographic areas. There is a moderate to high probability that drawing down resources from non-active geographic areas may pose a risk should existing conditions change.
Earliest day in the year at PL 3: May 12, 2000.
Latest day in the year at PL 3: November 3, 2003.
Longest duration at PL 3: 60 days from July 1, 2004 to August 29, 2004.
Years level never moved above PL 3: 1991, 1995, 2004, 2009, 2019.
5-year average number of days per year at PL 3: 42.
10-year average number of days per year at PL 3: 37.
181
Preparedness Level 4 (PL 4)
National resources are heavily committed. National mobilization trends affect all geographic areas and regularly occur over larger distances. National priorities govern resources of all types. Heavy demand on inactive/low activity geographic areas for available resources.
Earliest day in the year at PL 4: June 10, 2002.
Latest day in the year at PL 4: October 21, 2024.
Longest duration at PL 4: 41 days from September 1, 2005 to October 11, 2005.
Years level never moved above PL 4: 1992, 1998, 1999, 2005, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2016, 2022, 2023.
5-year average number of days per year at PL 4: 18.
10-year average number of days per year at PL 4: 19.
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Preparedness Level 5 (PL 5)
National resources are heavily committed, and additional measures are taken to support geographic areas. Active geographic areas must take emergency measures to sustain incident operations. Inactive/low activity geographic areas are reaching drawdown levels.
Earliest day in the year at PL 5: June 21, 2002.
Latest day in the year at PL 5: October 17, 2024.
Longest duration at PL 5: 69 days from July 14, 2021 to September 20, 2021.
5-year average number of days per year at PL 5: 23.
10-year average number of days per year at PL 5: 21.
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Initial Attack vs. Large Fire Support / Extended Attack
Initial attack always takes priority. Then they look at identified threats like life safety (FF and civilian), structure threats, or high-value assets like archaeological sites, power lines and infrastructure, etc.
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Closest Force Concept
Closest resource are deployed, regardless of agency.
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Predictive Services at NICC
Meteorologists, fuels analysts, and intel analysts to preposition resources to areas where there is a high likelihood of a fire event due to dry lightning, cold front with critical fuels, etc.
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Intel Section at NICC
Provides decision support. Tell us what resources are available and committed. Creates Situation Report and other published reports. Daily at PL 2 and weekly at PL 1.
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Fire Integrated Real-time Intelligence System (FIRIS)
Program that provides real-time intelligence data and analysis on emerging disaster incidents in California. Funded by the California Office of Emergency Services (CalOES), the funding supports aircraft, a common operating picture, and near-real-time fire modeling by WIFIRE that is available at the onset of emerging incidents. The 2020-2021 program uses the Overwatch Imaging platform, which includes an aerial infra-red (IR) platform that integrates cutting-edge technologies provided by Aevex Aviation. That data is fed to Intterra’s wildfire decision support software where WIFIRE retrieves the data for predictive analytics.
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California Office of Emergency Services (CalOES)
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National Infrared Operations (NIROPS)
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GeoMAC (Geospatial Multi-Agency Coordination)
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California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CalFire)
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MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer)
Key satellite-based instrument used for detecting and monitoring wildfires across the globe. MODIS is an observational instrument operated by NASA, mounted on two satellites in a sun-synchronous near-polar orbit.
MODIS uses a specialized algorithm to detect active fires by identifying areas where infrared radiation differs significantly from surrounding areas. Its fire detection capabilities include:
1. Routine detection of both flaming and smoldering fires around 1000 square meters in size.
2. Under ideal conditions, detection of fires as small as 50 square meters.
3. Ability to detect fires in 1-km pixels under relatively cloud-free conditions.
MODIS provides several fire-related data products:
1. Active Fire Products: Detect fires burning at the time of satellite overpass.
2. Burned Area Products: Map the spatial extent of recently burned areas.
3. Fire Radiative Power: Measures the rate of energy emitted by fires.
MODIS fire data is widely used for:
1. Near real-time fire detection and monitoring.
2. Creating fire maps and imagery for fire managers.
3. Studying the spatial and temporal distribution of fires in different ecosystems.
4. Supporting operational firefighting decisions.
5. Analyzing global fire patterns and trends.
Advantages
1. Frequent coverage: MODIS observes each point on Earth's surface 3 to 4 times daily[4].
2. Global perspective: Provides consistent fire detection across the entire planet.
3. Rapid response: Data can be processed and delivered within 2-4 hours of observation[2].
Limitations
1. Cloud cover can obstruct fire detection.
2. Smaller fires may be missed, especially under non-ideal conditions.
3. False detections can occur due to various factors[7].
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VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite)
Advanced satellite instrument used for detecting and monitoring wildfires, offering several key improvements over its predecessor, MODIS.
VIIRS is mounted on two polar-orbiting satellites. These satellites provide global coverage every 12 hours or less. Offers enhanced fire detection capabilities compared to MODIS:
VIIRS allows for detection of smaller and less intense fires compared to MODIS. Under ideal conditions, VIIRS can detect fires as small as 100m² in a 1km pixel. VIIRS is particularly responsive to heat sources at night, favoring plume detection.
VIIRS provides several fire-related data products:
1. Active Fire Products: Detect fires burning at the time of satellite overpass.
2. Fire Radiative Power: Measures the rate of energy emitted by fires.
3. 375m and 750m resolution products: The 375m product typically offers improved fire detection performance.
Key Features
1. Global coverage: VIIRS provides consistent fire detection across the entire planet.
2. Rapid response: Data can be processed and delivered within 2-4 hours of observation[1].
3. Improved detection of small fires: The higher resolution allows for better detection of agricultural and other small fires.
4. Plume detection: VIIRS can sometimes detect tall plumes from very large wildfires, especially at night.
Used for:
1. Near real-time fire detection and monitoring
2. Creating fire maps and imagery for fire managers
3. Studying spatial and temporal distribution of fires
4. Supporting operational firefighting decisions
5. Analyzing global fire patterns and trends
Limitations
1. Cloud cover can still obstruct fire detection.
2. Very small fires may still be missed under non-ideal conditions.
3. False detections can occur due to various factors.
VIIRS represents a significant advancement in satellite-based fire detection, offering improved spatial resolution and sensitivity compared to MODIS. Its data products are widely used in wildfire management, research, and policy-making, providing crucial information for understanding and responding to fire activity across the globe.
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FIRMS (Fire Information for Resource Management System)
NASA system that provides near real-time active fire data from both MODIS and VIIRS satellite instruments.
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GOES-16
Advanced geostationary weather satellite that is part of the GOES-R series operated by NASA and NOAA. It serves as the operational GOES East satellite, providing continuous imagery and atmospheric measurements of Earth's Western Hemisphere.
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LANDFIRE (Landscape Fire and Resource Management Planning Tools)
Shared program between the wildland fire management programs of the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service and the U.S. Department of the Interior, providing landscape-scale geospatial products to support cross-boundary planning, management, and operations.
LF began due to an increased concern about the number, severity, and size of wildland fires and the need for consistent national biological/ecological inventory data. Identifies areas across the nation potentially susceptible to wildland fire to support community and firefighter protection. Has evolved and expanded to include other applications such as habitat research and disturbance maps.
LF data characterize the current and historical states of vegetation, fuels, fire regimes, and disturbances. LF produces a comprehensive, consistent, scientifically credible suite of more than 25 geospatial layers, a reference database, and a set of quantitative vegetation models at a national extent.
LF data characterize the current and historical states of vegetation, fuels, fire regimes, and disturbances. LF produces a comprehensive, consistent, scientifically credible suite of more than 25 geospatial layers, a reference database, and a set of quantitative vegetation models at a national extent. LF data supports landscape assessments, analysis, and natural resource management. LF supplements and assists modeling of fire behavior and effects.
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Fire Behavior Model History
Most fire behavior models were developed in the 1970s, when there was far less fuel in California’s forests and most wildfires consumed a thin layer of leaves and needles on the forest floor. Since then aggressive fire suppression efforts, combined with severe drought that has killed millions of trees, have left forests filled with trees and branches—heavy fuels that allow fires to grow far more intense than in previous decades. Current fire behavior models do not account for these new conditions.
In addition, too little is understood about the physics of how wildfires burn, including how much heat is released, what gases are emitted, and the effects of weather (especially wind and moisture) in the transition from smoldering to flaming combustion.
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National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS)
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National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP)
orthoimagery
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Fast / Fine Fuels
Light, dry fuels that ignite and burn quickly. They include materials like dry grasses, needles, leaves, and small twigs.
Characteristics: Fast fuels are typically less than a quarter-inch thick and have a high surface-area-to-volume ratio, meaning they catch fire and burn out quickly. Fires in fast fuels spread rapidly, especially under windy or hot, dry conditions.
Examples: Dry grass, pine needles, fallen leaves, and small twigs.
Data Implications for COP: Tracking areas with high concentrations of fast fuels can help firefighters anticipate rapid fire spread. Including real-time weather data, especially wind, i
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Technosylva
Company that provides specialized fire modeling and wildfire risk management software.
CAL FIRE has invested in Technosylva's software as an "enterprise solution" for fire modeling and incident management. This means the agency uses Technosylva tools widely across its organization to improve decision-making and fire response.
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"Wildfire Analyst"
Fire modeling software by Technosylva. It provides real-time predictions about fire behavior, such as spread and intensity, which helps responders understand how a fire might evolve.
Automatic Fire Prediction: When a fire incident is entered into the CAD (Computer-Aided Dispatch) system, WFA generates an initial prediction of fire behavior, including risks to infrastructure and nearby structures. It can also recommend extra resources if conditions indicate that the fire is likely to spread quickly.
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CAD
Computer-Aided Dispatch
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COP
Common Operating Picture. A tool or platform that gives all responders a shared view of the incident. CAL FIRE uses both a web COP (for web-based viewing) and a mobile COP (for field use)
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FiResponse
Tactical mobile COP tool for on-the-ground personnel, allowing them to see real-time updates and track resources.
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FireScope
A multi-agency group in California that standardizes incident response systems.
EIT (Emerging Incident Technology): This subgroup focuses on incorporating new technology into firefighting. The poster is advocating for a shared "minimum data set" (like AVL and fire perimeter data) to be accessible across these platforms, improving interoperability among agencies and technologies.
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Intterra
A software platform for data visualization and analysis, used by federal wildfire agencies.
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ATAK (Android Team Awareness Kit)
A geospatial mapping and situational awareness tool often used by military and government agencies.
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Tablet Command
A popular incident management tool for mobile devices.
210
ELMFIRE (Efficient Large-scale Model of Fire Spread)
Is a fire spread simulation model integrated within PyreCast, a computational framework developed to model and predict wildfire behavior. PyreCast combines various fire modeling tools, algorithms, and data inputs to support real-time and large-scale wildfire simulation, often used in operational contexts for decision-making and resource allocation.
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Remote Automated Weather Stations (RAWS)
RAWS are perhaps the most common source of fuel moisture data for firefighters in the U.S. The National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC) manages a network of around 2,200 RAWS stations across the country.
These stations record data on temperature, humidity, wind speed, precipitation, and fuel moisture levels, among other metrics, at regular intervals (often hourly).
RAWS data is publicly accessible and can be viewed in tools like WIMS (Weather Information Management System) or FWIP (Fire Weather Information Processing System).
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WildCAD
Computer-aided dispatch system used by wildland fire agencies across the United States. It streamlines the process of ordering firefighters and equipment for wildfire response. WildCAD serves as an invaluable information source for fire management and coordination.
Key features of WildCAD include:
Dispatch management: It helps coordinate resources for wildfire incidents23.
Interagency communication: WildCAD facilitates information sharing between different fire agencies.
Integration with other systems: Enhanced versions of WildCAD can communicate with IRWIN (Integrated Reporting of Wildland fire Information).
WildCAD has evolved into WildCAD-E, an updated version of the system. WildCAD-E continues to serve as a critical tool for wildfire dispatch operations, with support teams being established to maintain and improve the system.
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IRWIN
Integrated Reporting of Wildland-Fire Information (IRWIN) federal system. Incident notifications for all federal agencies and any state agency.
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20 / 20 Rule & Crossover
When temperature is at or above 20 degrees C (68 degrees F) and relative humidity is below 20%. Signals potentially severe fire behavior.
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General / Synoptic Winds
Large scale, powered by broad-scale pressure gradients between high and low-pressure systems. Influenced and modified considerably int he lower atmosphere by terrain and vegetative structure.
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Local / Mesoscale Winds
Thermal, convective, orographic, and gravity winds are all caused by local temperature differences generated over a comparatively small area by terrain and weather. Limited to near surface and are controlled by the strength of the daily solar cycle.
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RAWS
Remote Automated Weather Station
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1-Hour Fuel
Dead fuel less than ¼ inch in diameter. Examples: grass, small twigs, needles. Respond very quickly to moisture changes. Rapidly absorb or lose moisture. Take 1 hour to respond to moisture changes.
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10-Hour Fuel
Deadl fuel. ¼ inch to 1 inch in diameter. Examples: small branches, larger twigs. Respond relatively quickly to moisture changes. Take about 10 hours to adjust to new environmental conditions.
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100-Hour Fuel
Dead fuel from 1-3inches in diameter. Examples: larger branches, small logs. Take approximately 100 hours to respond to moisture changes. Slower to dry or absorb moisture compared to smaller fuels.
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1000-Hour Fuel
Dead fuel. 3 inches to 8 inches in diameter. Examples: Large logs, thick branches. Take around 1000 hours to adjust to moisture conditions. Slowest to change moisture content. Represent more substantial, longer-term fuel sources.
