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Higher Human Biology > Unit Three > Flashcards

Unit Three Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What does the sensory neuroma carry

A

Carry impulses from the sense organs to the CNS

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2
Q

What do motor neurons carry

A

Carry impulses from the CNS to the muscle and glands

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3
Q

What does the somatic nervous system do

A

It controls voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles and reflex actions

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4
Q

What does autonomic nervous system consist of

A

Consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic systems regulating the heart, blood vessels, bronchioles and digestive system

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5
Q

What does antagonistic mean

A

Affect the same structure but exert opposition effect

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6
Q

What does the converging neural pathway do

A

Several impulses from several neurons travel to one neurone. This increase the sensitivity to the signal

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7
Q

What do rods to in the converging pathway

A

Allow several impulses to be transmitted simultaneously to reach the threshold and allows bison in almost total darkness

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8
Q

What does the diverging neural pathway do

A

Impulses from one neurone travel to several neurones affecting more than one destination at the same time

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9
Q

What is reverberating pathways

A

A sound that occurs repeatedly as in an echos

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10
Q

What is the cerebral cortex

A

The centre of consciences thoughts

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11
Q

What does the cerebral cortex do

A

Able to recall memories. Receives sensory information, coordinates voluntary moment’s and decisions in light of post experience

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12
Q

What is the corpus callosum

A

Which allows a transfer of information from one hemisphere to another

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13
Q

What are the brain connected by and what is it called

A

The two hemispheres are connected by a large bundle of nerve fibres called the corpus callosum

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14
Q

What does association mean

A

Analysis and interpret information and take decisions in necessary

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15
Q

Areas of cerebrum are responsible for

A

Intelligence
Imagination
Language processing

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16
Q

What does memorise include

A

Past experience
Knowledge
Thoughts

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17
Q

What does encoding do

A

Information that we see, hear, think and feel is changed into form the brain can process and store

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18
Q

What does storage do

A

The retention of information over a period of time. 30 seconds or a lifetime

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19
Q

What is retrieval

A

Recovery of stored material

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20
Q

What’s shallow encoding

A

Information encoded by rehearsal

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21
Q

What’s elaborative encoding

A

Attaching information or links to their meaning leads to improved information retention

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22
Q

What is level one of memory

A

Retains all visual and auditory input briefly (0.5-3 seconds). Only selected images and sounds are encoded to STM

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23
Q

What’s level two of memory

A

Limited capacity hold information up to 30 seconds. Rehearsal helps transfer of information to LTM

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24
Q

What’s level three of memory

A

LTM has unlimited capacity and stores information for a long time

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25
Q

STM capacity is

A

Limited capacity of 7 +/- 2 items

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26
Q

How can you increase STM

A

Capacity can be increased by chunking

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27
Q

What can happen to LTM

A

Some can be displaced (pushed out by incoming information)

Or decay

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28
Q

What is chunking

A

A chunk is meaningful unit of information made up of several units

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29
Q

What is rehearsal

A

Repeating a price of information over and over to memorise it. Helps extend the length of time it is maintained in STM

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30
Q

What is the serial position effect

A

First few items remembered
Last few items remembered
Middle items not well remembered as STM is crowded

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31
Q

How can information from STM to LTM be aided

A

Rehearsal
Organisation
Elaboration

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32
Q

What is organisation

A

Information organised into categories this easily transfers to LTM

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33
Q

What is elaboration

A

By analysing the meaning of the item to be memorised and taking note of its various features and properties it becomes more meaningful

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34
Q

What are contextual cues

A

A contextual cues relates to the time and place when the information was encoded and commutes to the LTM

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35
Q

What is the dendrite

A

Nerve fibres which receive impulses and pass them towards the cell body

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36
Q

Where are dendrites in the neuron

A

End of cell body

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37
Q

What does the cell body do

A

Control centre of cell metabolism and contains ribosomes (protein synthesis making neurone transmitters)

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38
Q

What is an axon

A

Carries impulses away from the cell body to the effectors - muscles

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39
Q

What is the myelin sheath

A

A layer of fatty material
Insulates an axon
Greatly increase the speed at which an impulse can be transmitted from node to node along the axon

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40
Q

What is a node

A

Grapes in the myelin sheath

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41
Q

What is myelination

A

Development of myelin sheath around the axon. This is not complete at birth and continues during development until adolescence

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42
Q

What diseases can the myelin sheath cause

A

It can cause MS if it is damaged/destroyed causing a loss of co-ordination

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43
Q

What is a glial cell

A

Supports neurones

Produces the myelin sheath (lay down layers of plasma membranes around the axon)

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44
Q

What is the synaptic cleft do

A

Neurones connect with muscle and glands via synaptic clefts. Messages are passed across the velds by neurotransmitters

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45
Q

What is the synapse

A

Tiny space between the axon ending of one neurone and the dendrite of the next

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46
Q

What are the stages of transmission of a nerve impulse

A

Nerve impulse travels down the pre-synaptic neurone

Vesicles containing neurone transmitter are triggered to move to and fuse with pre-synaptic membrane

Neurotransmitters secreted into synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitters bing to the receptors in the post synaptic membrane

Nerve impulse is passed on

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47
Q

How is Acetylcholine removed

A

It is broken down by enzymes

48
Q

How is non-adrenaline removed

A

Reabsorbed and stored in vesicles for reuse

49
Q

What do receptors do

A

They determine weather a signal generated is excitatory or inhibitory when a neurotransmitter binds

50
Q

A nerve impulse is only transmitted if

A

It causes the release of a minimum number of neurotransmitter to bind to a sufficient number or receptor sites and reach the threshold

51
Q

What is summation

A

The cumulative effect of series of weak stimuli bring about an impulse

52
Q

What are endorphins

A

Are neurotransmitters acting as natural pain killers. They combine with receptors at synapse and block transmission of pain signal

53
Q

What does endorphins increase

A

Stress
Sever injury
Vigorous exercise
Certain foods

54
Q

What is dopamine

A

It is a neurotransmitter that induces feeling of pleasure and reinforces certain behaviours by activating the reward pathway

55
Q

What does the reward pathway involve

A

Involves neurones which secrete or respond to dopamine. Activated when you engage in a beneficial behaviour

56
Q

What is agonist

A

Mimics the action of neurotransmitters by binding to and stimulating specific receptors

57
Q

What is antagonist

A

Binds to specific receptors and block receptor sites preventing neurotransmitters from acting in them

58
Q

What does inhibitors do

A

Prevent removal of neurotransmitter from the synapse by inhabiting enzymes action or reabsorption

59
Q

What does Alzheimer’s diseases do

A

Loss of neurones that make acetylcholine and nerve impulses cannot be transmitted

60
Q

What is Parkinson’s disease

A

Caused by a loss of neurones which synthesise dopamine

61
Q

What is a treatment for Parkinson’s

A

Can include synthetic dopamine or enzyme inhibitors any dopamine in the synapse has a longer lasting effect

62
Q

What do recreational drugs change in you

A

Mood
Cognitive thinking
Perception
Behaviour

63
Q

How do recreational drugs affect neurotransmitters

A

Stimulate release of neurotransmitter

Act as an agonist and mimic the action of a neurotransmitter

Act as antagonist bind with receptors and block neurotransmitter

Inhibit reabsorption of a neurotransmitter

Inhibit enzymes which breakdown neurotransmitter

64
Q

Canabis mode of action

A

Contains substances that bind to receptors involved in the nerve transmission of muscular control and pain sensitivity

65
Q

Cocaine mode of action

A

Inhibits dopamine re-uptake channels leading to higher level of dopamine in the reward circuit

66
Q

Ecstasy mode of action

A

Inhibits re-uptake of a neurotransmitter which remains in synapse increasing a felling of well being

67
Q

Alcohol mode of action

A

Mimics neurotransmitter that can act to reduce feeling of anxiety

68
Q

Nicotine mode of action

A

Mimics effect of acetylcholine on certain neural receptors leading to increased dopamine in the reward circuit

69
Q

What a drug addiction

A

Repeated use of a drug that acts as an antagonist (blocks receptors) nervous system compensates by increasing receptors in number and sensitivity so users crave more of drug

70
Q

What does drug tolerance mean

A

Repeated use of a drug that acts as an agonist (mimics neurotransmitter) nervous system compensates by decreasing receptors in number and sensitivity and a larger does is now required to have the original effect

71
Q

What does immunity mean

A

The ability of the body to resist infection by a pathogen

72
Q

What does non-specific mean

A

Work against any type of disease-causing agent

73
Q

What does specific mean

A

Work against a particular pathogen

74
Q

What is the first line of defence

A

Skin - physical barrier
Secretion of stomach acid
Secretion of mucus

75
Q

What is the second line of defence

A

Inflammatory response

Phagocytosis

76
Q

What is the third line of defence

A

Response of t-lymphocytes production of antibodies

77
Q

What is a pathogen

A

Disease causing organism

78
Q

What are the physical barriers in the first line

A

Mucous membranes of digestive and respiratory track

Closely packed epithelial cells found in skin, digestive and respiratory systems provides an impermeable barrier when intact

79
Q

What are the chemical barriers in first line

A

Tears and saliva contain lysozyme which destroys bacteria

Mucus traps microorganisms

Sweat keeps skin at a low PH so microbes Connor survive

Stomach acid destroys microbes

80
Q

What is the inflammatory response

A

A physical injury triggers the response

After injury mast cells realise histamine
Histamine causes:
- vasodilation
- increased capillary permeability
- this allows phagocytes to accumulate at the damaged tissue and allows clotting elements to begin tissue repair and clotting at the injured site

81
Q

What is phagocytosis

A

A phagocyte recognises pathogens and destroys them by phagocytosis. It engulfs the pathogen and digests it using lysozyms stored in lysosomes. Dead bacteria and phagocytes accumulate at an effected site as pus

82
Q

What is cytokines

A

Cytokines protein molecules released by phagocytes which act as a signal for other phagocytes to accumulate at the site of infection

83
Q

What is an antigen

A

Protein on surface of a cell that triggers a specific immune response

84
Q

What are B-lymphocytes

A

Produce form stem cells in the bone marrow

85
Q

What do B-lymphocytes produce

A

Antibodies

memory cells

86
Q

What is an antibody

A

Are y-shaped proteins and each arm has a receptor site specific to a particular antigen Ona pathogen. Bind to antigen in-activating the pathogen so it can be destroyed by phagocytosis

87
Q

What is an allergy

A

B-lymphocytes can respond to antigen on substances that are harmless to the body e.g. pollen and dust. This hypersensitive response is an allergic reaction

88
Q

What is anaphylactic shock

A

A life threatening reaction to an allergen that has been infected (bee sting) or consumed (peanuts)

89
Q

What happens I anaphylactic shock

A

Person is so allergic that the mast cells secret large quantities of histamine amusing excessive vasodilation which causes a loss of circulatory fluid to the tissue and a drop in blood pressure and volume. Death can occur

90
Q

What are t-lymphocytes

A

Destroy infected cells by recognising antigen of the pathogen on the cell membrane and induce apoptosis

Produce memory cells capable of recognising the same foreign antigen in the future

91
Q

What is apoptosis

A

T lymphocytes attaches to infected cells and reales proteins

Proteins diffuse into the cell and trigger production is self destructive enzymes which cause cell death

Dead cell remains are engulfed and digested by phagocytosis

92
Q

What is agglutination

A

Clumping is red blood cells and causes major blockage of small blood vessels

93
Q

What is the autoimmune meaning

A

Failure of the T lymphocytes h responding to self antigens and attacking the bodies own cells

94
Q

What is rheumatoid arthritis

A

Inflammation of synovial membranes causes the membrane to swell up cartilage and bone are gradually destroyed and replaced by fibrous tissue which joins the two bones together making a joint immovable

95
Q

What does HIV do

A

It attacks the t-lymphocytes by binding to specific receptors on the cell and entering it

96
Q

What does HIV contain

A

It contains RNA. it need DNA to transcribe mRNA so it introduces an enzyme to bring about the reverse of normal transcription to produce viral DNA from viral RNA

97
Q

What is natural squired immunity

A

Person survives infection by a pathogen

2nd exposure to same antigen results in a secondary response

98
Q

What is artificially acquired immunity

A

A vaccination

99
Q

What is a vaccination

A

Uses antigen from infectious pathogens to initiate an immune response and create memory cells Memory cells initiate the secondary response is a person is exposed to the disease at a later date

100
Q

Antigen used in vaccines can be

A

Inactivated pathogen toxins
Dead pathogens
Weakened pathogens
Parts of a pathogen

101
Q

What does adjuvant mean

A

Antigen is mixed with this to make a vaccine more effective and enhances the immune response

102
Q

What is herd immunity

A

Occurs when a large percentage of the population is immunised

This reduces the spread of diseases and the chances of coming into contact with and infected individual is low

To be infected only an minority of the population can be left unvaccinated

103
Q

What is the the herd immunity threshold

A

The percentage of the immune individuals in a population above which a disease no longer manages to persist.

104
Q

How does the threshold of herd immunity vary

A

Type of disease (capacity to cause disease)(e.g how easily its spread)

Effectiveness of vaccine

Population density

105
Q

What are mass vaccination programs for

A

Establish herd immunity for commons disease

106
Q

Difficulty arises when in mass vaccination

A

Widespread vaccination is not possible in developing countries where the majority are impoverished and malnourished

When vaccines are rejected by a percentage of the population in the developing world

107
Q

What is antigenic variation

A

Antigenes on the surface different from original strain

108
Q

What does double blind mean

A

Neither the subject or doctors know who is in witch group and receiving witch treatment. This eliminates biased groups

109
Q

What dose placebo control mean

A

Exactly the same form as the drug without the activation the drug would do to the body this allows valid comparison between test and control group

110
Q

What does randomised mean

A

Participants randomly placed in a group by a computer to reduce biased in the distribution of age, gender…etc

111
Q

What is a vaccine clinical trial

A

Vaccines and drugs must be subjected to clinical trials to establish there safety and efficacy (produce the intended result) before they can be licensed for use

112
Q

What happens in phase one of clinical trials

A

Small dose of treatment tested on a small number of volunteers (25-30) to check if safe

113
Q

What happens in phase two of clinical trials

A

Treatment tested on a larger number (150-300) of people who have the illness to see if the treatment is starting and effective and find out what the optimum does may be

114
Q

What happens in phase three is clinical trials

A

Treatment tested in a very large number (1000-2000) of people who have the illness using a randomised, placebo controlled, double blind protocol

115
Q

What happens if phase three is successful in clinical trials

A

Results submitted and licence sought to manufacture the new treatment

116
Q

In phase three what happens in clinical trials

A

Test group who receive treatment

A control group who do not receive treatment

Higher Human Biology (3 decks)

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