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Endo/Repro > Unit One > Flashcards

Unit One Flashcards

1
Q

Multicellular creatures need what in order to maintain homeostasis

A

Cells to communicate

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2
Q

What are methods of cell communication

A

Nervous system, endocrine, paracrine/autocrine, gap junctions and neuroendocrine

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3
Q

Nervous system uses what for communication

A

Action potentials and neurotransmitters

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4
Q

Endocrine uses what for cell communication

A

Hormones and bloodstream

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5
Q

Paracrine and autocrine uses what for cell communication

A

Locally secreted chemicals and diffusion

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6
Q

Gap junctions use what for cell communication

A

Direct cell to cell communication

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7
Q

Neuroendocrine uses what for cell communication

A

Combo of nervous and endocrine, neuron sends neurotransmitter into blood stream

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8
Q

Exocrine glands have ducts that lead to

A

Body surface or internal organ

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9
Q

What gland is not used for cell to cell communicaiton

A

Exocrine

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10
Q

Examples of exocrine glands

A

Sweat, biliary system, salivary

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11
Q

What gland is ductless

A

Exocrine

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12
Q

Endocrine glands secrete hormones where

A

Directly into the blood

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13
Q

Target cells have what

A

Specific hormone receptors

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14
Q

What are classic endocrine organs

A

Hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas, andrenal gland and testes/ ovaries

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15
Q

Other endocrine organs

A

Pineal gland, stomach, duodenum, kidney, placenta, adipose and heart

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16
Q

What are the three classes hormones

A

Protein/peptide, steroid, and amines

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17
Q

The Amine class of hormones are derived from

A

Tyrosine

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18
Q

Steroid class of hormones are derived from

A

Cholesterol

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19
Q

Peptides have how many amino acids long

A

Less than 100

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20
Q

Example of peptides

A

TRH- 3 aa long

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21
Q

Proteins are how many aa long

A

More than 100

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22
Q

Example of protein

A

HCG - 237 aa

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23
Q

Are protein/ polypeptide hormones water soluble or insoluble

A

Soluble

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24
Q

Protein/polypeptide hormones bind to

A

Cell surface (membrane) receptors

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25
Q

How do protein/polypeptide hormones travel in plasma

A

Dissolved and not bound to something

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26
Q

What is an example of peptide synthesis

A

Insulin

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27
Q

What are the common release signals for peptide hormone secretion

A

Calcium mediated and second messenger mediated

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28
Q

What is calcium mediated peptide hormone secretion

A

Action potential in endocrine cell causes Ca2+ influx and Ca2+ causes hormone release

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29
Q

What is second messenger mediated peptide hormone secretion

A

Chemical binds to receptor, receptor activates G protein to activate cAMP then protein kinase mechanisms leading to hormone release

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30
Q

Consequences of protein/peptide in the blood

A

Move easily from the blood to the target tissue for use, cleared from the blood faster therefore their effects tend to be short lived

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31
Q

Steroid hormone are water or lipid soluble

A

Lipid

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32
Q

Since steroid hormones are lipid soluble they can

A

Diffuse through lipid bilayers easily

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33
Q

Steroid hormones are lipid soluble and are not stored in

A

Vesicles

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34
Q

Steroid hormones are secreted as they are

A

Synthesized

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35
Q

Do steroid hormones need cell receptors

A

No

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36
Q

What is the first step of steroid hormone synthesis

A

Cholesterol to pregnenelone

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37
Q

What is the example of steroid synthesis

A

Cortisol

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38
Q

What is the common release signals for steroid secretion

A

Second messenger mediated

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39
Q

How does second messenger mediated in steroid secretion work

A

Chemical binds to receptor, receptor activate G protein, activates cAMP, activates protein kinase mechanisms leading to hormone release

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40
Q

Second messengers in steroid secretion may also lead to

A

Calcium influx which triggers aspects of steroid synthesis and or release

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41
Q

Since steroids are lipid soluble how are they transported in blood

A

Bind to carrier protein

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42
Q

Consequence of steroid bound to protein in blood

A

Carrier proteins exit blood slowly, steroids remain longer, effects on target cells can linger for a long time, clearance rate for blood is slow

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43
Q

What are the two groups of amine hormones

A

Thyroid hormones and catecholamines

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44
Q

Example of thyroid hormones

A

T3 and T4

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45
Q

Example of catecholamines

A

Epinephrine and norepinephrine

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46
Q

Enzymes for biosynthesis of amine hormones are present where

A

In cell cytoplasm of thyroid and adrenal medulla

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47
Q

What is also a catecholamine but mostly used as a neurotransmitter in the CNS

A

Dopamine

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48
Q

How are thyroid hormones stored

A

Large polymers called thyroglobulin

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49
Q

How are thyroid hormones secreted

A

Amines are split off and secreted into blood

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50
Q

How are adrenal medulla catecholamines transported and secreted

A

Into vesicles and secreted in similar way as peptide hormones

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51
Q

What triggers release of thyroid hormones

A

Chemical binds to receptor, G protein/cAMP/ protein kinase mechanism triggers release

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52
Q

How are catecholamines released by signals

A

Stimulated by sympathetic nervous system

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53
Q

Are catecholamines water or lipid soluble

A

Water

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54
Q

How are catecholamines transported

A

Like peptides

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55
Q

Are thyroid hormones water or lipid soluble

A

Lipid

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56
Q

How are thyroid hormones transported

A

Like steroid, bound to carrier

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57
Q

Hormone secretion rate is due to

A

Stimuli, negative feedback (inhibition) and positive feedback

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58
Q

What are the different types of stimuli that triggers hormone stimulation

A

Hormonal stimuli, other chemical stimuli (humoral), neuronal stimuli

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59
Q

Negative feedback is due to

A

Rising hormone levels itself or one of its products

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60
Q

Negative feedback prevents

A

Over activity of a gland

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61
Q

Negative feedback aka

A

Negative inhibition

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62
Q

Positive feedback occurs in

A

Special circumstances when surges of hormones are needed

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63
Q

What are the mechanisms of hormone clearance

A

Metabolic destruction by target tissues (enzymes), excretion by the liver into the bile, excretion by the kidneys into urine

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64
Q

MCR is what

A

Metabolic clearance rate

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65
Q

How to determine MCR

A

Rate of disappearance of a hormone from the plasma/ concentration of hormone

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66
Q

What feedback is the principle way to regulate hormone secretion

A

Negative feedback

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67
Q

What feedback loops are more common

A

Negative

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68
Q

What are the three types of endocrine gland stimuli

A

Humoral, neural, and hormonal

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69
Q

What is humoral stimulus

A

Something in body not a hormone that stimulates release of hormone, usually in blood

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70
Q

What does humoral mean

A

Of or relating to the body fluids, especially with regard to immune responses involving antibodies in body fluids as distinct from cells

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71
Q

No cell can respond to a hormone unless it possesses what

A

A receptor

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72
Q

What are some receptor characteristics

A

large proteins, may have thousands on cell, highly specific to what binds to it, location of receptor varies

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73
Q

Where are the locations of receptors

A

In or one cell membrane, in cytoplasm, in nucleus

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74
Q

What hormones bind to in or on cell membrane

A

Water soluble

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75
Q

What hormones bind to receptors in cytoplasm

A

Lipid soluble

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76
Q

What hormones bind to receptors in nucleus

A

Lipid soluble

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77
Q

Membrane receptors are used for what hormones

A

Water soluble and neurotransmitters

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78
Q

What are examples of membrane receptors

A

Ion channel linked receptors, G protein linked receptors, enzyme linked receptors

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79
Q

G protein linked receptors activate what

A

Adenylyl cyclase/ cAMP activation, phospholipse C/ IP3 and DAG activation, G protein activated ion channels

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80
Q

What happens when binding of neurotransmitter or hormone to ion channel linked receptor

A

Causes channel to open

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81
Q

When is ion channel linked receptors more commonly used

A

With neurotransmitters in the nervous system

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82
Q

Ion channel linked receptors AKA

A

Ligand gated channel

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83
Q

Enzyme linked receptors are made of

A

An enzyme

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84
Q

The best studied enzyme linked receptor is

A

Tyrosine kinase receptor

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85
Q

Enzyme linked receptors often first involves

A

Autophosphorylation before activation of other enzymes or transcription factors

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86
Q

What in tyrosine kinase receptor that is being phosphorylated

A

Tyrosine

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87
Q

G protein linked receptors effects are mediated by

A

G protein

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88
Q

What is a G protein

A

Complex of three subunits, alpha, beta and gamma

89
Q

How is a G protein activated

A

When signal molecule binds to the receptor

90
Q

What occurs after signal molecule binds to receptor in G protein receptor

A

GDP is exchanged for GTP and the complex splits, alpha subunit activates a variety of targets

91
Q

How is the G protein linked receptors deactivated

A

G protein hydrolyses the GTP and re assembles its subunits

92
Q

When G protein linked receptors become activated what are the possible outcomes

A

Intracellular enzyme activated, activate gene transcription, activate ion channels, activate membrane enzyme

93
Q

Intracellular receptors are used for what specific hormones

A

Steroid and thyroid hormones

94
Q

We store energy at what stage

A

After feeding

95
Q

We release energy at what stage

A

Fasting

96
Q

Why do we need energy

A

Maintain blood glucose (brain), available energy for other cells and their activity, thermoregulation, food digestion, physical activity

97
Q

Carbohydrates, fats and proteins can all be used to generate

A

ATP

98
Q

Carbohydrates are digested to what

A

Simple sugars (glucose)

99
Q

Carbohydrates are phosphorylated by what enzyme

A

Hexokinase and glucokinase

100
Q

Glycolysis turns carbs into

A

Acetyl co a

101
Q

Citric acid cycle turns carbs into

A

NADH and FADH2

102
Q

Electron transport chain turns carbs into

A

ATP

103
Q

Proteins are digested into

A

Amino acids

104
Q

Proteins are converted into what metabolites

A

Pyruvate, acetyl co a, or an intermediated in the citric acid cycle

105
Q

Fats are digested into what

A

Fatty acids and glycerol

106
Q

Fats are used in

A

Beta oxidation to make acetyl co a

107
Q

Early glycolysis is what

A

Energy investment of 2 ATP

108
Q

Early glycolysis steps

A

Glucose into fructose 1,6 bisphosphate

109
Q

Intermediate glycolysis involves

A

Cleavage of 6 carbon sugar into two 3 carbon

110
Q

Intermediate glycolysis involves what step

A

Fructose 1,6 bisphosphate into glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate

111
Q

Late glycolysis is called what

A

Energy generation of 4 ATP,

112
Q

Glycolysis has a total net gain of how many ATP

A

2

113
Q

In late glycolysis glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate turns into

A

Pyruvate

114
Q

Before entering the Kreb’s cycle, pyruvic acid needs to be converted to wha

A

Acetyl co a

115
Q

Glycolysis occurs where

A

Cytosol

116
Q

Kreb’s cycle occurs where

A

Mitochondria

117
Q

What forms citrate in Kreb’s cycle

A

Acetyl co a and oxaloacetate

118
Q

What happens to citrate along Kreb’s cycle

A

Citrate loses two carbons in the form of CO2 and ultimately reforms oxaloacetate

119
Q

What are the products of the Kreb’s cycle

A

3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 GTP (per turn)

120
Q

Aka of electron transport chain

A

Oxidative phosphorylation

121
Q

ETC is composed of

A

Electron acceptors imbedded in the inner membrane

122
Q

What is released from NADH and FADH2 in ETC

A

High energy electrons and H+

123
Q

How are electrons transferred in ETC

A

From cytochrome to cytochrome releasing energy

124
Q

The energy released from electrons in ETC goes where

A

Used to pump H+ from the matrix of the intermembrane space creating a H+ gradient

125
Q

Where is ATP synthase used

A

ETC

126
Q

What is ATP synthase

A

Enzyme couples diffusion of H+ down its concentration gradient to synthesize ATP from ADP and phosphate

127
Q

What is the final electron acceptor of ETC

A

Oxygen

128
Q

Why is oxygen final acceptor in ETC

A

Spent electrons combines with oxygen and H+ to form H2O

129
Q

How many ATP produced by NADH

A

2.5

130
Q

How many ATP produced per FADH2

A

1.5

131
Q

In terms of ATP, the total oxidation of one glucose gives how many ATP

A

30

132
Q

AKA of beta oxidation

A

Catabolism of fatty acids

133
Q

Fats (triglycerols) are broken down into

A

Glycerol and fatty acids

134
Q

What is the term used to break down fats

A

Lipolysis

135
Q

Fatty acids are converted into what during beta oxidation

A

Acetyl co a

136
Q

What is hormone sensitive lipase

A

Involved in the hormonal lay regulated release of fatty acids and glycerol from adipocyte lipid stores

137
Q

Hormone sensitive lipase is regulated by

A

Epinephrine

138
Q

What is ketogenesis

A

Ketone bodies are formed by breakdown of fatty acids (and ketogenic amino acids)

139
Q

When is acetyl co a metabolized into Ketone bodies

A

Low availability of carbohydrates and/or a high rate of beta oxidation

140
Q

Ketogenesis occurs where

A

In liver

141
Q

High levels of Ketone bodies leads to

A

Ketoacidosis

142
Q

What are the three ketone bodies to know

A

Acetoacetate, acetone and D-beta-hydroxybutyrate

143
Q

Following protein digestion into individual amino acids, they are what

A

Delaminates to remove NH4+

144
Q

When amino acid is deaminated, NH4+ enters where

A

Urea cycle in order to be eliminated by kidneys

145
Q

What in the amino acid is converted into and intermediate of metabolism to form ATP

A

Carbon skeleton

146
Q

What is the carbon skeleton of amino acids

A

Everything of amino acid minus the NH4+

147
Q

Glycogen is the storage form of

A

Glucose

148
Q

Most glycogen is stored where

A

Liver and skeletal muscle

149
Q

What is glycogenesis

A

Formation of glycogen from glucose

150
Q

What is the major enzyme of glygenesis

A

Glycogen synthase

151
Q

Does the liver store glycogen for itself or everyone

A

Everyone

152
Q

Does the skeletal muscle store glycogen for itself or everyone

A

Itself

153
Q

What is glycogenolysis

A

Breakdown of glycogen back into glucose

154
Q

Major enzyme of glycogenolysis

A

Glycogen phosphorylase

155
Q

Glycogen is similar to what other molecules

A

Starch and cellulose

156
Q

What is gluconeogenesis

A

Making glucose from scratch

157
Q

What is depleted in your body so new glucose can be synthesized

A

Glucose and glycogen

158
Q

What depends on blood glucose for energy

A

Brain and red blood cells

159
Q

What is an important alternative source of glucose

A

Gluconeogenesis

160
Q

What provides the raw material for gluconeogenesis

A

Glycerol, lactate and several amino acids (alanine)

161
Q

Where does gluconeogenesis occur

A

Kidneys and liver

162
Q

What is lipogenesis

A

Making new fatty acids

163
Q

Fatty acids synthesis starts with

A

Acetyl co a and builds up by the addition of two carbon units

164
Q

Where does lipogenesis occur

A

Cytoplasm

165
Q

Major enzyme of lipogenesis

A

Fatty acid synthase

166
Q

Majors sites of fatty acid synthesis is

A

Adipose tissue and liver

167
Q

Fatty acids can be assembled with what to form triacylglycerols

A

Glycerol

168
Q

AKA of triacylglycerols

A

Neutral fats

169
Q

Glycerol for fat synthesis comes from

A

An intermediate of glycolysis (from glucose)

170
Q

What is the fed state

A

Time of food Ingestion, through absorption of energy yielding nutrients into the body

171
Q

What metabolism is favored in the fed state

A

Anabolic

172
Q

Energy in fed state is mostly stored in the form of

A

Fat and glycogen but also as ATP, phosphocreatine and protein

173
Q

What are the principle storage forms of energy

A

Fat and glycogen

174
Q

What is the fasting state

A

After food is both digested and absorbed, and continues as long as no more food is ingested

175
Q

What metabolism is favored in the fasting state

A

Catabolic

176
Q

The liver receives blood from

A

GI tract and pancreas

177
Q

During fed state, the liver takes up

A

Carbs, lipids and most amino acids

178
Q

Fed state liver carb metabolism

A

Increased phosphorylation of glucose, increased glycogen synthesis, increased glycolysis, decreased gluconeogenesis, decreased glycogenolysis

179
Q

What hormone influences the fed state liver carb metabolism

A

Insulin

180
Q

Fed state liver fats

A

Increased de novo fatty acid synthesis, increased triacylglycerol synthesis

181
Q

Fed state liver amino acids

A

Increased amino acid degradation (to be used for fat synthesis or for energy) and increased protein synthesis

182
Q

Fed state liver fats and amino acids influenced by what hormone

A

Insulin

183
Q

Fed state adipose carb metabolism

A

Increased glucose transport into adipocytes, increased glycolysis

184
Q

During fed state adipose carb metabolism, why is there increase in glucose transport into adipocyte

A

Glucose can be used in fatty acid synthesis

185
Q

Fed state adipose carb metabolism increases glycolysis due to

A

Supplying substrates for glycerol in TAG synthesis

186
Q

Increase glucose transport into adipocytes of fed state of adipose carb metabolism in influenced by what hormone

A

Insulin

187
Q

Fed state adipose fat metabolism

A

Increased synthesis of fatty acids, increased TAG synthesis, decrease TAG degradation

188
Q

Adipocytes get most of their fatty acids from what two sources

A

Chylomicrons and VLDL

189
Q

What are chylomicrons

A

Droplets of cholesterol and TAGS from digestive tract

190
Q

What are VLDL

A

Droplets of fats from liver

191
Q

Increased TAG synthesis and decreased TAG degradation in fed state adipose fat metabolism is influenced by what hormone

A

Insulin

192
Q

Fed state skeletal muscle carb metabolism

A

Increases glucose transport, increases glycogen synthesis

193
Q

Carb metabolism in fed state of skeletal muscle is influenced by what hormone

A

Insulin

194
Q

Fed state skeletal muscle fat metabolism

A

Fatty acids are secondary fuel source and primary being glucose

195
Q

Fed state skeletal muscle amino acid metabolism

A

Increased protein synthesis

196
Q

What is protein synthesis increased during fed state of skeletal muscle

A

To replace functional protein that may have been lost during the last fasting period

197
Q

What hormone influences fed state of skeletal muscle Amino acid metabolism

A

Insulin

198
Q

What is the primary fuel for the Brain

A

Glucose

199
Q

Is the brain insulin dependent or independent

A

Independent but has been evidence stating insulin can be transported in CSF and leads to feelings of satiety

200
Q

In fasting state, liver carb metabolism has what stages

A

Uses glycogen degradation first then gluconeogenesis

201
Q

Glycogen degradation in liver carb metabolism of fasting state is influenced by what hormone

A

Glucagon

202
Q

Gluconeogenesis in liver carb metabolism of fasting state uses what hormone of influence

A

Norepinephrine

203
Q

What does the liver have that can release free glucose into the blood

A

Glucose 6-phosphatase

204
Q

Fasting state liver fat metabolism

A

Increased fatty acid oxidation, increased synthesis of ketone bodies

205
Q

How does liver use fat metabolism in fasting state

A

From fats obtained from TAG hydrolysis in adipose

206
Q

Fasting state adipose carb metabolism

A

Decreased in glucose transport into adipocytes due to low insulin

207
Q

Fasting state adipose fat metabolism

A

Increase degradation of TAG, increased release of fatty acids, decreased uptake of fatty acids from VLDL or chylomicrons

208
Q

Increase degradation of TAG in fasting state of adipose fat metabolism is influenced by what hormone

A

Glucagon and norepinephrine

209
Q

Increased degradation of TAG in fasting state of adipose fat metabolism causes activation of what hormone

A

Hormone sensitive lipase

210
Q

Fasting state in skeletal muscle carb metabolism

A

Lowered rate of glucose uptake due to low levels of insulin

211
Q

Fasting state skeletal muscle fat metabolism

A

Uses fatty acids from adipose tissue and ketone bodies from the liver as primary fuels

212
Q

What occurs in kidneys of fasting state

A

Gluconeogenesis during prolonged fasting and compensation for the acidosis due to ketogenesis

213
Q

In the early few days of fasting state in skeletal muscle protein metabolism

A

Rapid breakdown of muscle protein to be used by liver for gluconeogenesis

214
Q

Fasting state early few days of protein metabolism in skeletal muscle is influenced by what hormone

A

Cortisol

215
Q

After several weeks, fasting state of skeletal muscle protein metabolism

A

Proteolysis declines as more ketone bodies are produced and used to help spare protein

216
Q

Do skeletal muscles have glucagon receptors

A

No

217
Q

First few days of fasting state of brain metabolism in general

A

Brain still uses glucose exclusively due to supplied by gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis from liver

218
Q

Prolonged fasting in fasting state of brain metabolism in general

A

Ketone bodies replace glucose as primary fuel and helps reduce dependency on protein catabolism

Endo/Repro (2 decks)

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