Unit I: Human Development, Diversity, and Behavior in the Environment

Question 1

Erik Erikson

Answer 1

• interested in how children socialize and how this affects their sense of sense
• personality developing throughout the life course
• identity crises as the focal point for each stage of human development
• Eight distinct stages, with two possible outcomes: successful completion = health personality, failure = unhealthy personality and sense of self

Question 2

Erikson’s Eight Stages

Answer 2

1. Trust vs. Mistrust
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
4. Industry vs. Inferiority
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Question 3

Erikson’s First Stage: Trust vs. Mistrust

Answer 3

• from birth to 1 years old
• ability to trust others based on the consistency of their caregivers
• successful trust= confidence and security gained
• unsuccessful trust = inability to trust, sense of fear, anxiety, heightened insecuritities, feelings of mistrust

Question 4

Erikson’s Second Stage: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Answer 4

• between the ages of 1 and 3
• independence
• if supported and encouraged, then they feel confident and secure
  -if criticized and controlled, then they feel inadequate and become overly dependent upon others while laking self-esteem and sense of shame/doubt in own abilities

Question 5

Erikson’s Third Stage:
Initiative vs. Guilt

Answer 5

• age 3 to 6
• assert self more frequently
• sense of initiative and secure in ability to lead others
  -if criticized or controlled, children develop sense of guilt; may feel like a nuisance and will lake self-initiative

Question 6

Erikson’s Fourth Stage: Industry vs. Inferiority

Answer 6

• age 6 to puberty
• develop sense of pride in accomplishments
• if supported, they feel confident
• if restricted, they feel inferior, doubting abilities, failing to reach potential

Question 7

Erikson’s Fifth Stage: Identity vs. Role Confusion

Answer 7

• during adolescence
• becoming more independent
• look at future with career, relationships, families, etc.
• explore possibilities and form own identities
• if sense of who they are is hindered, confusion about themselves and their role can take place

Question 8

Erikson’s Sixth Stage: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Answer 8

• during young adulthood
• share themselves more intimately with others and explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with others outside the family
• success = comfortable relationships and sense of commitment, safety, and care
• unsuccessful completion = avoiding intimacy and fearing commitment and relationships, leading to isolation, loneliness, and depression

Question 9

Erikson’s Seventh Stage: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Answer 9

• during middle adulthood
• establish careers, settle down, develop sense of being part of the bigger picture
• failing= becoming stagnant and feeling unproductive

Question 10

Erikson’s Eighth Stage: Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Answer 10

• growing older and becoming older adults
• slowing down and exploring life as retired people
• contemplate accomplishments, develop sense of integrity
• if they failed to accomplish their goals, they become dissatisfied with life, develop despair, leading to depression and hopelessness

Question 11

Six Levels of Cognition

Answer 11

1. Knowledge: rote memorization, recognition, or recall of facts
2. Comprehension: understanding what the facts mean
3. Application: correct use of the facts, rules, or ideas
4. Analysis: breaking down information into component parts
5. Synthesis: combination of facts, ideas, or information to make a new whole
6. Evaluation: judging or forming an opinion about the information or situation

Question 12

Jean Piaget

Answer 12

• developmental psychologist known for his theory on cognitive development
• his stages focus on the acquisition of knowledge and how humans come to gradually acquire it
• children learn through interactions with the environment and others

Question 13

Lawrence Kohlberg

Answer 13

• theory of moral development

Question 14

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development (4 Stages)

Answer 14

1. Sensorimotor (0-2 years old)
2. Preoperational (2-7 years old)
3. Concrete Operations (7-11 years old)
4. Formal Operations (11 through maturity)

Question 15

Piaget’s First Stage: Sensorimotor

Answer 15

• 0-2 years old
• retains image of objects
• develops primitive logic in manipulating objects
  begins intentional actions
• play is imitative
  -signals meaning– infant invests meaning in event (i.e., babysitter arriving means mother is leaving)
• symbol meaning (language) begins in last part of stage

Question 16

Piaget’s Second Stage: Peroperational

Answer 16

• 2-7 years old
• progress from concrete to abstract thinking
• can comprehend past, present, future
• night terrors
  acquires words and symbols
• magical thinking
• thinking is not generalized
• thinking is concrete, irreversible, egocentric
• cannot see another point of view
• thinking is centered on the one detail or event
• imaginary friends often emerge at this stage and can last into elementary school

Question 17

Piaget’s Third Stage: Concrete Operations

Answer 17

• ages 7-11
• beginnings of abstract thought
• plays games with rules
• cause and effect relationship understood
• logical implications are understood
• thinking is independent of experience
• thinking is reversible
• rules of logic are developed

Question 18

Piaget’s Third Stage: Formal Operations

Answer 18

• 11 through maturity
• higher level of abstraction
• planning for future
• thinks hypothetically
• assumes adult roles and responsibilities

Question 19

The three levels of the six developmental constructive stages according to Kohlerg

Answer 19

1. Pre-conventional (stages 1+2): Elementary school level
2. Conventional (stages 3+4): Early adolescence
3. Post-conventional (stages 5+6): Adulthood

Question 20

Pre-conventional (Kohlberg)

Answer 20

• elementary school level, before age 9
  -Stage 1: Child obeys an authority figure out of fear of punishment. Obedience/punishment
  Stage 2: Child acts acceptably as it is in her or his best interests. Conforms to the rules to receive rewards.

Question 21

Conventional (follow stereotypic norms of morality; Kohlberg)

Answer 21

-Early adolescence
-Stage 3: Person acts to gain approval from others. Good boy/good girl orientation.
-Stage 4: Obeys laws and fulfills obligations and duties to maintain social system. Rules are rules. Avoids censure and guilt.

Question 22

Post-conventional (this level is not reached by most adults; Kohlberg)

Answer 22

-Adult
-Stage 5: Genuine interest in welfare of others; concerned with individual rights and being morally right
-Stage 6: Guided by individual principles based on broad, universal ethical principles. Concern for larger universal issues of morality.

Question 23

Four Distinct Orientation of Learning Theories

Answer 23

1. Behaviorist: Pavlov and Skinner
2. Cognitive: Piaget
3. Humanistic: Maslow
4. Social/Situational: Bandura

Question 24

Behaviorist

Answer 24

-Pavlov and Skinner
-Learning is viewed through change in behavior and the stimuli in the external environment are the locus of learning. Social Workers aim to change the external environment in order to bring about desired change.

Question 25

Congnitive

Answer 25

-Piaget
-Learning is viewed through internal mental processes (including insight, information processing, memory, and perception) and the locus of learning is internal cognitive structures. Social workers aim to develop opportunities to foster capacity and skills to improve learning.

Question 26

Humanistic

Answer 26

-Maslow
-Learning is viewed as a person’s activities aimed at reaching his or her full potential, and the locus of learning in meeting cognitive and other needs. Social workers aim to develop the whole person.

Question 27

Social/Situational

Answer 27

-Bandura
-Learning is obtained between people and their environment and their interactions and observations in social contexts. Social workers establish opportunities for conversation and participation to occur.

Question 28

Behavioral Development

Answer 28

-personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment
-study of observable and measurable behaviors, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts and feelings into account.
-Behaviors determine feelings. Changing behaviors will also change or eliminate undesired feelings. Goal is to modify behavior.
-The focus is on observable behavior– a target symptom, a problem behavior, or an environmental condition, rather than on the personality of the client.
-two fundamental classes of behavior: Respondent and operant

Question 29

Respondent (one of the two fundamental classes of behavior)

Answer 29

-involuntary behavior (anxiety, sexual response) that is automatically elicited by certain behavior. A stimulus elicits a response.

Question 30

Operant (one of the two fundamental classes of behavior)

Answer 30

-voluntary behavior (walking, talking) that is controlled by the consequences in the environment

Question 31

Behavior modification applications are best known for:

Answer 31

Examples include: sexual dysfunction, phobic disorders, compulsive behaviors (i.e., overeating, smoking), and training of persons with intellectual disabilities and/or Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Question 32

Behavioral Paradigm according to Pavlov: Respondent or Classical Conditioning

Answer 32

-Learning occurs as a result of pairing previously neutral (conditioned) stimulus with an unconditioned (involuntary) stimulus so that the conditioned stimulus eventually elicits the response normally elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
Example: Dog salivating with ring of bell after conditioning

Question 33

Behavioral Paradigm according to B.F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning

Answer 33

• Antecedent events or stimuli precede behaviors, which, in turn, are followed by consequences. Consequences that increase the occurrence of the behavior are referred to as reinforcing consequences; consequences that decrease the occurrence of the behavior are referred to as punishing consequences. Reinforcement aims to increase behavior frequency, whereas punishment aims to decrease it.
  -Antecedent–> response/behavior–> consequence

Question 34

Operant Techniques

Answer 34

1. Positive reinforcement
2. Negative reinforcement
3. Positive Punishment
4. Negative Punishment

Question 35

Positive Reinforcement (operant)

Answer 35

Increases probability that the behavior will occur- praising, giving tokens, or otherwise rewarding positive behavior

Question 36

Negative reinforcement (operant)

Answer 36

behavior increases because a negative (aversive) stimulus is removed (i.e., remove shock, turning off an alarm clock, buckling your seatbelt to turn off alarm)

Question 37

Positive punishment (operant)

Answer 37

Presentation of undesirable stimulus following a behavior for the purpose of decreasing or eliminating that behavior (i.e., hitting, shocking, spanking a child for swearing)

Question 38

Negative Punishment (operant)

Answer 38

• removal of a desirable stimulus following a behavior for the purpose of decreasing or eliminating that behavior (removing something positive, such as a token or dessert)

Question 39

Aversion Therapy (behavioral)

Answer 39

-Any treatment aimed at reducing the attractiveness of a stimulus or a behavior by repeated pairing of it with an aversive stimulus.
-Example: treating alcohol use disorder with Antabuse

Question 40

Biofeedback (behavioral)

Answer 40

-Behavior training program that teaching a person how to control certain functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, temperature, and muscular tension. Biofeedback is often used for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Anxiety Disorders

Question 41

Extinction

Answer 41

-Withholding a reinforcer that normally follows a behavior. Behavior that fails to produce reinforcement will eventually cease

Question 42

Flooding

Answer 42

A treatment procedure in which a client’s anxiety is extinguished by prolonged real or imagined exposure to high intensity feared stimuli

Question 43

In vivo desensitization

Answer 43

Pairing and movement through a hierarchy of anxiety, from least to most anxiety provoking situations; takes place in “real” setting

Question 44

Modeling

Answer 44

Method of instruction that involves an individual (the model) demonstrating the behavior to be acquired by the client.

Question 45

Rational emotive therapy (RET)

Answer 45

A cognitively oriented therapy in which a social worker seeks to change a client’s irrational beliefs by argument, persuasion, and rational evaluation, and by teaching a client to counter self-defeating thinking with new, non-distressing self-statements.

Question 46

Shaping

Answer 46

Method used to train a new behavior by promoting and reinforcing successive approximations with the desired behavior

Question 47

Systematic desensitization

Answer 47

An anxiety-inhibiting response cannot occur at the same time as the anxiety response. Anxiety-producing stimulus is paired with relaxation-producing response so that eventually an anxiety-producing stimulus produces a relaxation response. At each step a client’s reaction of fear or dread is overcome by pleasant feelings engendered as the new behavior is reinforced by receiving a reward. The reward could be a complement, a gift, or relaxation.

Question 48

Time out

Answer 48

Removal of something desirable-negative punishment technique

Question 49

Token economy

Answer 49

A client receives tokens as reinforcement for performing specified behaviors. The tokens function as currency within the environment and can be exchanged for desired goods, services, or privileges.

Question 50

Defense Mechanisms

Answer 50

• Behaviors that protect people from anxiety
• Defense mechanisms are automatic, involuntary, usually unconscious psychological activities to exclude unacceptable thoughts, urges, threats, and impulses from awareness for fear of disapproval, punishment, or other negative outcomes.
• Defense mechanisms are INVOLUNTARY

Question 51

Acting Out

Answer 51

Emotional conflict is delt with through actions rather than feelings (i.e., instead of talking about feelings neglected, a person will get into trouble to get attention)

Question 52

Compensation

Answer 52

• Enables one to make up for real or fancied deficiencies (i.e., a person who stutters becomes a very expressive write, a short man assumes a cocky, overbearing manner).