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BMS 752 (Medical Physiology) > Unit I COPY > Flashcards

Unit I COPY Flashcards

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USMLE® Step 1 flashcards
1
Q

four functional classifications of chemical messangers

A
  1. paracrine
  2. autocrine
  3. neurotransmitters
  4. hormones
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2
Q

what hormones are produced in the anterior pituitary in response to GnRH?

what hormones will GnRH produce?

A

FSH and LH

androgens and estrogens

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3
Q

two examples of leaky epithelia

A
  1. small intestine
  2. proximal convoluted tubule
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4
Q

how can we increase current, flow, or flux

A

increase the driving force or decrease the resistance

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5
Q

what happens to Vmax if the number of receptor proteins is doubled

A

the Vmax will also double

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6
Q

ovum pickup

A

the process by which a ovulated mature oocyte is released by the ovaries and picked up by the fallopian tubes

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7
Q

leptin

A

a peptide secreted by adipocytes that regulates eating behavior, energy, and reproduction

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8
Q

how does stimulation frequency effect contraction strength

A

more frequent stimulus can result in summation of contractions

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9
Q

at what Vm do funny channels open

A

-50mV

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10
Q

at RMP, what is the driving force behind Na flux?

what is that called?

in what direction does it move?

negative or positive

A

the sum of the chemical energy from high Na concentrion outisde the cell and the electrochemical attraction to the anions in the cell

the electrochemical gradient

into the cell

negative

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11
Q

T/F graded stimulus can activate individual fibers of a motor unit

A

false, motor units are all or none

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12
Q

what can be used in place of conductance? why?

A

the number of leak channels available for a particular ion

because conductance is a measure of membrane permeabilty, and the only place a membrane is passively permeable to an ion is at a leak channel

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13
Q

what is the primary function of amino acid messangers

A

neurotransmitters in the CNS

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14
Q

what type of receptor is tyrosine kinase?

what does it do?

A

a fast response enzyme

when bound with a protein ligand it allows for the production of PTP, which affects intracellular change

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15
Q

what is a normal ICF and ECF for potassium

A

ECF: 4.5 mM

ICF: 150mM

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16
Q

two parts of the basolateral membrane

A
  1. serosal membrane
  2. peritubular membrane
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17
Q

describe the variables and what this equation means (3)

A
  1. the electrochemical difference is the the driving force behind passive diffusion
  2. the electrochemical difference is the sum of the chemical energy difference and electrical energy difference
  3. z = valence of the ion, F = .023kcal/mol *mV, psi1 - psi0 = the membrane potential
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18
Q

what hormonal activity signals the start of puberty

A

nocturnal secretion of GnRH

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19
Q

Follicle cohort

A

all of the recently activated follicules stimulated by FSH

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20
Q

primary endocrine organ

A

an organ whose only job is to secrete or store ligands

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21
Q

eicosanoids

A

paracrine ligands derived from arachidonic acid produced by virtually all cels of the body

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22
Q

channell

A

a gated pore that can be opened or closed

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23
Q

what are three functions of potassium channels

A
  1. Terminate action potentials
  2. modulate electrical excitability
  3. stabilize the resting potential
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24
Q

how is the “leading follicle” chosen from the follicle cohort?

how does the criteria change as the mother ages

A

the follicle that tolerates the decline in FSH is considered the leading follicle

younger mothers select the fittest follicle, older mothers select the first follicle that is activated

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25
Q

what are the two mechanisms of intercellular communication

A

direct and indirect

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26
Q

equilibrium potential

A

the membrane potential that will counteract the driving force behind a concentration gradient for a certain ion

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27
Q

resting membrane potential for a neuron

A

-70mV

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28
Q

what are the four determinants of gender

A
  1. genetic
  2. gonadal
  3. ductal
  4. genital
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29
Q

how does caffiene influence energy production

A

it inhibits the action of phosphodiesterase, stopping it from breaking down cAMP into AMP to stop protein phosphorylation

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30
Q

what happens when a woman has no more eggs

A

menopause

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31
Q

what happens when extrogenous FSH is given during selection of the dominant follicle?

when might this be useful

A

more follicles survive the selection phase to ovulate

IVF to harvest more eggs

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32
Q

what hormone would be absent with a lack of pubic hair

A

androgens

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33
Q

what are 5 types of steroid ligand

A
  1. glucocorticoids
  2. mineralocorticoids
  3. androgens
  4. estrogens
  5. progestines
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34
Q

GnRh

A

gonadotropin releasing hormone

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35
Q

I = V/R

what is this? what are the variables?

A

Ohms law

I = Current

V = voltage difference

R = resistance

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36
Q

four examples of tight epithelia

A
  1. distal portion of the distal convoluted tubule
  2. collecting duct
  3. large intestine
  4. urinary bladder
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37
Q

what is happening in the plateau phase of an isotonic contraction

A

there is no more tension being produced because the load is moving by shortening muscle fibers

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38
Q

direct intercellular communication

A

when ions and molecules pass directly from the cytoplasm of one cell to another

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39
Q

why does menopause cause hot flashes

A

no estrogen production stimulates increased GnRH production

increased hypothalamic activity causes the hypothalamus to assume core temp is too high

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40
Q

how is the process of calcium release into t tubules different for cardiac muscle?

what is the alternative?

A

there is no mechanical binding

calcium for L type calcium channels binds to the calcium release channels, stimulating ion current

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41
Q

if follicles are activated every day, what happens to the activated follicles?

A

they die unless in the follicular phase (FSH is present)

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42
Q

what is happening during the latent phase of an isometric twitch

A

there has been a stimulus received by the muscle but no calcium release until the end of the latent phase

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43
Q

how can low thyroid cause an increase in estradiol

A

low T3/4 will not give negative feedback to the hypothalamus/pituitary to inhibit TRH and TSH

TSH can cross reaction with FSH and LH receptors to stimulate the production of estradiol

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44
Q

how much estradiol needs to be present for ovulation to occur

A

200 picograms/mL for 24 hrs

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45
Q

a patient with precocious puberty needs treatment, what are two options and why would they be effective

A

1) estrogens, because it will suppress GnRH production but won’t decrease estrogen
2) GnRH antagonists to down regulate GnRH receptors in the pituitary, deceasing FSH and LH production

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46
Q

secondary endocrine organs (6)

A
  1. heart
  2. liver
  3. stomach
  4. small intestine
  5. kidney
  6. skin
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47
Q

rin

A

the viscocity of the cytoplasm

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48
Q

basolateral membrane

A

the epitheial cells surfaces that face adjacent cells or toward the underlying connective tissue

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49
Q

tight epithelia

A

cell junctions that maintain large ion concentration and osmotic gradients

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50
Q

coulombs law

A

the attraction between two ions increases or decreases based on charge and decreases the further apart two ions are

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51
Q

what happens to ECF and ICF with an infusion of NaCl

A

ECF experiences an increase in osmolality, causing solute to difuse into the ICF

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52
Q

when does osmotic work occur

A

during active transport with the Na/K pump

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53
Q

CRH

A

corticosteroid releasing hormone

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54
Q

what two factors influence conduction velocity and how do they relate to the length constant

A
  1. diameter of the cell (viscosity)
  2. presence of myelin (membrane resistance)
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55
Q

what would happen if a 30 yr old person were given high doses of testosterone

A

estrogen would increase through aromatase

increased estrogen and testosterone would decrease FSH and LH

decreased FSH and LH would lead to a lower sperm count

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56
Q

what are three possible causes of primary ovarian failure

A
  1. turners syndrome
  2. gonadal dysgenesis
  3. premature menopause
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57
Q

what two potassium channels are in the Kv family?

what do they do

A

delayed outward and transient outward rectifiers

they allow potassium flux out of the cell to return the cell to RMP

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58
Q

what currents are in play during each phase of the cardiac pacemaker action potential

A

phase 4: If, ICaT, IKv1.1

phase 0: ICaL

phase 3: IKv1.1

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59
Q

pores

A

intergra membrane proteins that for conduits that are always open

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60
Q

leaky epithelia

A

cell junctions cannot maintain large gradients and are used for bulk transport of solute and water

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61
Q

unfused tetanus

A

when summation produces an average constant tension between contractions

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62
Q

what two hormones are secreted by sertoli cells

A
  1. androgen binding hormone
  2. mullerian inhibiting hormone
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63
Q

what direction does a negative delta G move

A

into the cell

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64
Q

what does a nicotinic receptor do on skeletal muscle

A

opens ion channels, allowing Na and K into the cell, which depolarizes the cell membrane

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65
Q

relative refractory period

A

the interval when a second AP can occur but requires a stronger than normal stimulus

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66
Q

synergistic hormone effects (example)

A

two hormones with the same action but the combination of their effect is greater than there individual sums

(GH and insulin)

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67
Q

net diffusion potential

A

the membrane potential created by movement of ions through leak channels

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68
Q

what are two types of cells that always have aquaporins (AQP1)

A
  1. RBCs
  2. Renal proximal convoluted tubule
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69
Q

at a subsaturation point for different ligands, which will bind more readily to the receptor

A

the ligand with the highest affinity

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70
Q

tertiary ovarian failure

A

hypothalamic failure to produce GnRH

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71
Q

describe the entire process of cross bridge cycling

A
  1. myosin is at rest at right angles to actin, bound to ADP and P
  2. myosin binds to actin at binding sites, releasing ADP and P
  3. unbound myosin heads change confirmation and shift to a 45 in relation to actin
  4. ATP binds with myosin to uncouple it from actin
  5. ATP is hydrolyzed into ADP and P to return the head to a 90 deg rest position
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72
Q

what are three types of potassium channels

A
  1. delayed outward rectifiers
  2. transient outward rectifiers (A type)
  3. inward rectifiers
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73
Q

what tyoe of ligand are thyroid hormones

A

amines

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74
Q

maximal stimulus

A

the lowest stimulus that will produce maximal force production

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75
Q

six steps for how adenylate cyclase produces a cellular response

A
  1. catecholamines bind to adrenergic receptor
  2. receptor releases GDP
  3. GTP binds to adenylate cyclase
  4. GTP + ATP + adenylate cyclase produces cAMP
  5. cAMP activates protein kinase A
  6. protein is phosphorylated
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76
Q

slow response receptors

A

receptors that are not bound to their effector and need an intermediary G protein to for a response

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77
Q

how can you have two different ligands with the same Vmax but differet KM

A

KM is based on affinity between the receptor ligand, Vmax is a measure of saturation point.

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78
Q

how are voltage gated sodium channels responsible for rapid depolarization

A

they open and close quickly, allowing the amount of Na moving into the cell to change very fast

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79
Q

ACTH

A

adrendocorticotropic hormone

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80
Q

what is happening during phase 0 in a pacemaker cell? what is the cause

A

upstroke

ICaL brining calcium into the cell through L type channels raises the Vm

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81
Q

series elastic component

A

the non-contractile parts of a cell and the tendons which produce force against stretch

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82
Q

what happens hormonally during ovulation

A

there is a surge in LH

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83
Q

name and describe the axis that produces thyroid hormone

A

thyroid axis

  1. TRH is secreted by the hypothalamus into the blood
  2. TRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to produce TSH
  3. TSH released into the blood acts on the thyroid to produce TH
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84
Q

relate elasticity and compliance to a real world object

A

a rubber band is compliant because it will stretch, and elastic because it will produce force to counteract stretching force and return it to its original shape

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85
Q

around what percent of maximum is power the highest

A

35%

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86
Q

T type calcium channels

A

transient type channels, create a more rapid response

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87
Q

what ligands are transported in blood

A

hormones

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88
Q

what is the primary estrogen

A

estradiol

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89
Q

what is the ductal determinant between males and females

A

females will have muellarian ducts, men will have vestigial muellarian ducts and prominent wolffian ducts

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90
Q

what is the action of IP3 produced by phospholipase C in the cell? what process is started

A

IP3 binds to ion channels on the smooth ER which release Ca, which binds to calmodulin, allowing for the production of protein kinase

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91
Q

what three events happen during the luteal phase

A
  1. progesterone production
  2. corpus luteum apoptosis
  3. Luteal rescue by HCG
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92
Q

three parts of the apical membrane

A
  1. brush border
  2. mucosal membrane
  3. luminal membrane
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93
Q

TRH

A

thyroid releasing hormone

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94
Q

what is the function of Ca in excitation-contraction coupling

A

it links excitation with coupling by binding to troponin to move tropomyosin off myosin binding sites, allowing for activation

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95
Q

what is happening during the relaxation phase of an isometric twitch

A

calcium is being pumped out of the cytoplasm to slow down cross bridge cycling

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96
Q

from an energy standpoint, what is a concentration gradient

A

store potential energy

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97
Q

what is the key andogren for skin and prostate

A

DHT

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98
Q

IKir

A

inwardly rectifying potassium current

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99
Q
A

dopamine

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100
Q

what is an example of carrier mediated transport

A

facilitated diffusion

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101
Q

what are three functions of the fallopian mucosa

A
  1. produce suppportive secretions for the egg and sperm
  2. help the egg and sperm move
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102
Q

what degrades hormones? are intracellular or extracellular hormones more quickly broken down

A

enzymes

lipophobic (extracellular) are broken down more quickly

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103
Q

what causes menopause

A

primary ovarian failure

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104
Q

what is the “triad” of cell structures that participate in propogation of action potentials between muscle cells

A

the sarcoplasmic reticulum of two cells sandwiching a T tuble

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105
Q

gibbs donnan forces

A

the attraction between extracellular cations to intracellular bound anions

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106
Q

what causes skeletal muscle excitation

A

neuromuscular somatic synaptic transmission

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107
Q

what is the length and standard deviation of a normal menstrual period?

A

28 +/- 3 days

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108
Q

amenorrhea

A

absence of menstration

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109
Q

what is electrochemical gradient for sodium at rest

A

-3.29 kcal/mol

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110
Q

antagonistic hormone interaction (example)

A

two hormones that have opposite effects (insulin and glucagon)

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111
Q

what is the difference in excitation-contraction coupling between skeletal and cardiac muscle cells

A

muscle cells use mechanical coupling between calcium release channels an on the SR and L type calcium channels on the T tubule

in cardiac cells L type calcium channels on the T tubule secrete calcium, which activates calcium release channels

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112
Q

what happens to the wolffian and mullerian ducts if there is no SRY gene present

A

the wolffian ducts will regress, the mullerian ducts will develop, the external genitalia will be female

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113
Q

what are the benefits of estrogen replacement therapy

A
  1. reduce intensity and frequency of hot flashes
  2. prevent osteoporosis
  3. maintain bladder and uterus function
  4. reduce the risk of colon cancer
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114
Q

knowing the effect of GnRH what are twoclinical applications

A
  1. GnRH infusing pumps to stimulate the ovaries
  2. Downregulation of GnRH receptors
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115
Q

what type of tissue makes up most of the uterus

A

smooth muscle

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116
Q

what are the three phases of the ovarian cycle

A
  1. follicular
  2. ovulation
  3. luteal
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117
Q

what is the second messanger in the adenylate cyclase reaction? phospholipase C?

A

cAMP

IP3 and DAG

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118
Q

what is happening in the latent phase of an isotonic contraction

A

muscle is developing tension without moving

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119
Q

five step process for G linked receptor interactions

A
  1. a receptor is inactive with a GDP bound to it
  2. ligand binding releases GDP
  3. GTP is phosphylated to GTP
  4. GTP alpha and beta parts disassociated
  5. one of the parts binds with the effector
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120
Q

what is one long term side effects of hypothalamic amenorrhea

A
  1. osteoporosis caused by low estrogen
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121
Q

what are the 3 parts of a G protein

A
  1. alpha
  2. beta
  3. y
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122
Q

aquaporins

A

specialized water channels in the cell membrane

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123
Q

adenohypophysis

A

the anterior lobe of the pituitary

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124
Q

paracrine

A

a ligand secreted into the ECF which travels by diffusion and binds to a neighboring cell

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125
Q

what happens if the anterior pituitary is stimulated by the hypothalamus?

what happens if there is no communication between the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

A

the anterior pituitary will secrete the appropriate hormones for its stimulation

prolactin will be produced because there will be no inhibiting factors from the hypothalamus

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126
Q

germ cells

A

cells that produce gametes

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127
Q

what are three specific responses to the LH surge during ovulation

A
  1. resumption of meosis with the expulsion of the 1st polar body
  2. release of collagenase and prostaglandins to weaken follicle wall
  3. follicular rupture
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128
Q

what are three ways blood hormone levels are controlled

A
  1. secretion rate
  2. carrier protein binding
  3. clearance rate
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129
Q

what are three descriptors of normal cervical mucosa

A
  1. scant
  2. thick
  3. cloudy
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130
Q

what amino acid are catecholamines derived from

A

tyrosine

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131
Q

a patient presents with early onset menses, elevated TSH, and an enlarged uterus

what would be the prescribed treatment

A

Thyroxine (T4) that will provide negative feed back to inhibit TSH production and stop FSH and LH cross-reactivity

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132
Q

what are the three phases of an isometric twitch

A

latent, contraction, relaxation

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133
Q

T/F passive transport does not involve energy

A

false, passive transport releases energy

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134
Q

what is the equilbrium potential of potassium under normal conditions

A

-90mV

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135
Q

what are three methods of active solute transpoirt

A
  1. active transport requiring ATP
  2. active transport using energy from redox reactions
  3. secondary active transport
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136
Q
A

epinephrine

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137
Q

what two types of ligands can pass the cell membrane without a carrier

A
  1. steroid hormones
  2. T3 and T4
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138
Q

current

A

the flow of charged particles

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139
Q

neurotransmitters

A

ligands secreted from neurons, into a synapse, and bind to a post synaptic receptor

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140
Q

what is ion channels are responsible for repolarization of smooth muscle

A

Kv1.1

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141
Q

If

A

Funny current, a current found in phase 4 of pacemaker cells due to Na inward flux through non fast channels

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142
Q

what are two sources of energy for primary active transport

A
  1. ATP hydrolysis
  2. directly from a primary metabolic reaction
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143
Q

Vmax

A

the maximum rate at which a ligand will bind to its receptor

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144
Q

isotonic contraction

A

a muscle contraction where there is myosin actin cross bridging and sacromere shortening that results in shortening of the muscle fibers

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145
Q

primary active transport

A

solute movement against electrochemical gradiant that requires energy

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146
Q

what is the state of the embryo 7 days after fertilization

A

it should be implanted on the uterus

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147
Q

what are the four states of a follicle

A
  1. primordial
  2. preantral
  3. antral
  4. preovulatory
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148
Q

three examples of passive non carrier cell transport

A
  1. simple diffusion across the cell membrane
  2. simple diffusion through pores
  3. simple diffusion through gated channels
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149
Q

KIR

A

inwardly rectifying voltage gated potassium channels found on cardiac myocyte that keep the cell at RMP by balancing outward flux of potassium

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150
Q

what are G protein linked receptors

A

a receptor that needs to use an intermediary G protein to couple with intracellular effectors and produce a response

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151
Q

what is signal amplification in reference to cyclic AMP

A

the concept that a single ligand can produce several reactions inside the cell

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152
Q

neurohypophysis

A

posterior lobe of the pituitary

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153
Q

two epithelial transport membrane

A
  1. transcellular
  2. paracellular
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154
Q

what is the hormonal cause of spotting during early pregnancy

A

as the corpus luteum dies the placent takes over producing progestrone, and sometimes there is too much of a decrease

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155
Q

androgen insensitvity syndrome

A

non functional androgen receptors that lead to formation of the wolffian ducts but no DHT to masculinize the external genitalia

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156
Q

T/F most receptor/ligand binding is permanent

A

false, it is temporary and reversible

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157
Q

what happens 6 days after ovulation

A

“hatching” when the blastocyst breaks out of the zona pellucida

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158
Q

how do sperm cells develop as they move toward the lumen of seminiferrous tubules

A

spermatogonium –> primary spermatocyte –> secondary spermatocyte –> spermatids –> spermatozoa

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159
Q

what three factors influence force generated by individual muscle fibers

A
  1. frequency of stimulation
  2. fiber diameter
  3. changes in fiber length
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160
Q

what happens to charge when a membrane depolarizes

A

charge flows through the cytoplasm to other parts of the cell membrane

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161
Q

semen

A

the 1.5-5mL of fluid emitted at ejaculation

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162
Q

T/F G protein effectors are always enzymes

A

false, they can be ion channels too

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163
Q

what is the action of DAG in the cell

A

activation of protein kinase C and phosphorlyation of protein

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164
Q

secondary ovarian failure

A

pituitary gland malfunction leading to decreased LH and FSH

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165
Q

is andropause natural

A

yes and no, there will be a decrease in testosterone and sperm production around 50 but men will continue tot produce until death

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166
Q

what type of regulation cycle is used by most primates

A

menstrual cycles

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167
Q

what are the three factors that influence RMP

A
  1. the attraction of extracellular cations to intracellular anions (Gibbs Donnnan)
  2. the membrane potential created by ion flux through leakage channels (net diffusion potential)
  3. the membrane potential created by ion pumps that create unequal distribution of ions (electrogenic pump potential)
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168
Q

what regulates the maximum amount of force a sarcomere can generate

A

the amount of contact between actin and myosin

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169
Q

transcellular epithelial transport

A

substances crosses the cell by going through the apical and then basolateral membranes

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170
Q

what determines if somone is genetically male of female

A

a male will have a Y chromosome with a functional SRY gene

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171
Q

why is the resting membrane potential of a cell relevant to diffusion

A

because it is negative, so positive ions are pulled into the cell, and the concentration pushes sodium into the cell

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172
Q

why would low BMI cause hypothalamic amenorrhea

A

the hypothalamus would react to low body fat by inhibiting production of GnRH

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173
Q

flux

A

diffusion

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174
Q

what is happening during Phase 4 of a cardiac myocyte contraction

A

maintenance of RMP caused by inward potassium rectifiers counteracting the flux of potassium out of the cell

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175
Q

symport

A

coupled transport where the linked substances move in the same direction

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176
Q

what is the driving force behind simple diffusion

A

the concentration gradient on either side of the cell membrane

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177
Q

how does cell diameter influence viscosity

A

a smaller cell is more viscous, a larger cell is less viscous

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178
Q

how does the hypothalamus regulate ovarian function (2examples)

A

provides fine tuning in response to environment by increasing or decreasing amplitude and frequency of GnRH pulses (sick or starving)

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179
Q

what will the wolffian ducts form into

A

vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate

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180
Q

serotonin

A

an amine neurotransmitter derived from tryptophan

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181
Q

how does fiber diameter effect force generation?

A

a larger fiber has a larger length constant and will conduct an AP further, allowing for the recruitment of other parallel fibers

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182
Q

when do women make primary oocytes and primordial follicles?

A

prior to birth

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183
Q

what is the function of the Na/K pumps

A

the keep a large inward Na gradient to drive secondary active transport

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184
Q

what stops the anterior pituitary from secreting large amounts of prolactin

A

inhibition from dopamine produced in the hypothalamus

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185
Q

what is the default phenotype of the external genitalia

A

female

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186
Q

TSH

A

thyroid stimulating hormone

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187
Q

what are two causes of hypothalamic amennorhea

A

low bf

stress

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188
Q

what type of ligand has the largest number of chemical messangers

A

protein

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189
Q

threshold

A

the lowest stimulus that will produce a contraction

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190
Q

what amino acid are T1 an T2 derived from

A

tyrosine

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191
Q

what will a mature oocyte look like on microscopy

A

a single large cell surrounded by cumulus cells

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192
Q

KM

A

the concentration of a ligand that will elict a reaction rate 1/2 of Vmax

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193
Q

estrous cycles

A

variable reproductive cycles such as going into heat or a rut

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194
Q

what hormone causes proliferation of the endometrium

A

estradiol

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195
Q

what happens to actin and myosin during activation

A

myosin binds to actin

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196
Q

where are steroid ligands derived from

A

cholesterol

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197
Q

T/F sperm counts have increasesed 1-2% a year since 1985

3 possible causes

A

false

  1. increased scrotal temperature
  2. environmental estrogens
  3. high stress
198
Q

what is happening in phase 2? what is the cause?

A

plateau

potassium current outward through KV1.1 is balanced out by calcium current through L type caclium channels, resulting in a prolonged contraction

199
Q

syngamy

A

the fusion of two cells, in our case to produce a zygote

200
Q

what happens to muscle cell when calcium is removed from the cytoplasm

A

with no calcium to bind troponin, tropomyosin will cover the cross bridge sides and block myosin attachments

201
Q

what three events happen in the follicular phase

A
  1. menses
  2. follicle recruitment
  3. selection of the dominant follicle
202
Q

describe the gonadal axis

A
  1. GnRH is produced in the hypothalamus
  2. GnRH stimulates the production of LH and FSH in the anterior pituitary
  3. LH and FSH stimulate the production of androgens and estrogens from the gonads
203
Q

what are the two key componenets of a menstrual cycle

A
  1. release of generally one egg
  2. growth and maturation of the uterine lining
204
Q

flux

A

the number of moles of a solute that cross a unit area of a membrane per unit of time (moles/cm2 * s)

205
Q

what are the three phases of cardiac pacemaker depolarizaion

A

Phase 4: slow diastolic depolarization

Phase 0: Upstsroke

Phase 3: repolarization

206
Q

what is a normal ICF and ECF for sodium?

A

ECF 145mM

ICF 9.5mM

207
Q

where is depolarization the strongest? what happens as you move away from this point

A

at the point of membrane stimulation and it goes down the further away you go

208
Q

what is the contribution of the following three factors or RMP

indirect Na/K

Gibbs donnan

electrogenic effect of Na/K

A
  • 56mV
  • 10mV
  • 4mV
209
Q

two types of secondary active transport

A
  1. symport
  2. antiport
210
Q

osmosis

A

the diffusion of water across a cell membrane

211
Q

in terms of energy, what direction does diffusion move

A

from high energy to low energy

212
Q

what hormonal process must happen to masculinize the the external genitalia

A

testosterone must be converted into DHT with 5 alpha reductase

213
Q

Lupron

A

a GnRH agonist that will bind to receptors and stop the release of sex hormones

214
Q

compliance

A

the abilty for an object to change shape

215
Q

what is the relationship between KM and affinity

A

the ligand with the highest affinity has a lower KM

216
Q

tonicity

A

the comparision of effective osmolalities between two solutions seperated by a membrane

217
Q

what determines the status of a voltage gated ion channel

A

the membrane potential

218
Q

two examples of slow response receptors

A
  1. muscarinic receptor
  2. adrenergic receptor
219
Q

isometric contraction

A

a contraction with myosin-actin cross bridge cycling, sarcomere shortening, but no movement

220
Q

what is the driving force of simple diffusion

A

the chemical energy difference on each side of the concentration gradient

221
Q

T/F most target cells have receptors for only one ligand

A

false, most have receptors for many different ligands

222
Q

how long after syngamy will the first mitotic division take place

A

24 hours

223
Q

when do menopausal women have the highest instances of hot flashes

A

the first 3 year post menopause

224
Q

LH

A

lutenizing hormone

225
Q

permissive hormone effects 9example)

A

when one hormone needs another to do its function (estradiol produces receptors for progeterone)

226
Q

what is happening during the contraction phase of an isometric twtich

A

calcium that has been release by the SR binds to troponin, moving tropomyosin and allowing for cross bridge cycling

227
Q

in Ix = gx (Vm - Ex), if Ix is negative, what does that mean? positive?

A

if current is negative that means that the equilbrium potential Ex is greater than the membrane potential Vm and postive ions will move into the cell

If current is positive then positive ions will move out of the cell

228
Q

gonad

A

generic term refering to the reproductive organs of both genders

229
Q

what is the effect of progesterone on prolferative endometrium

A

switches cells from hypertrophy to secretion to stop growth and supply nutrients for a fertilized egg

230
Q

Gibbs-Donnan effect

A

the effect of a charged membrane on charged particles, leading to unequal distribution of ions across the membrane

231
Q

what are the hormones released by the anterior pituitary

A
  1. prolactin
  2. TSH
  3. ACTH
  4. GH
  5. LH
  6. FSH
232
Q

what hormones are produced by theca cells in response to LH?

what how are these hormones altered by granulosa cells stimulated by FSH

A

androsteinedione and testosterone

aromatized into esterone and estradiol

233
Q

L type calcium channels

A

slower operating channels that create a sustained response

234
Q

what are two types of calcium channels

A

L type and T type

235
Q

what other ion is responsible for determining the voltage needed to open voltage gated ion channels? why

A

Calcium, because a significant amount of intracellular Ca will increase the membrane potential and decrease the electrochemical driving force of Na

236
Q

what determines the activation of a follicle

A

it is a spontaneous daily event that happens with no known contributatory factors

237
Q

why is 28 days a normal cycle?

A

because it takes 14 days for a oocyte to mature, and 14 more days before the corpus luteum dies so the cycle can restart

238
Q

what happens to most of the K brought into the cell from the Na/K pump

A

it is recycled through the basolateral membrane via K channels

239
Q

what is happening durin phase 3 in a cardiac pacemaker cell? what is the cause?

A

repolarization

IKv1.1 moving potassium out of the cell via delayed outward rectifiers

240
Q

hormones

A

ligands secreted into blood by endocrine cells, transported by the blood to a target cell receptor

241
Q

what is the threshold potential for skeletal muscle

A

-70mV

242
Q

what is the process by which phospholipase C produces IP3 and DAG

A
  1. epinephrine binds to adrenergic receptors
  2. receptor release GDP
  3. GDP –> GTP
  4. GTP binds with phospholipase C
  5. IP3 and DAG are produced
243
Q

under microscopy a zygote appears to have three protonuclei

what does that mean

A

polyspermia

244
Q

what is the main glucocorticoid

A

cortisol

245
Q

what is happening in the relaxation phase of an isotonic contraction

A

tension declines to zero

246
Q

what is the function of the sertoli cells

A

secrete androgen binding protein to keep levels of testosterone between the cells high where it can act on developing spermatocytes

247
Q

what types of solutes are capable of simple diffusion? examples (3)

A

solutes must be uncharged and hydrophobic

  1. gasses
  2. steroid hormones
  3. anesthetics
248
Q
A

norepinephrine

249
Q

what is ficks first law of diffusion

A

flux will move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration

250
Q

epinephrine

A

a catecholamine secreted by the adrenal medulla

251
Q

how is it possible that a sperm can enter the fallopian tubes within one hour of sexual intercourse

A

there are cillia that beat and help it move

252
Q

where do lipid soluble (lipoholic) ligands have their receptors

A

inside the cell

253
Q

what is a calcium channel?

A

a fast ion channel found on the cell membrane

254
Q

where does ovum pick up occur

A

in the “pouch” formed by the peritoneum between the bladder and the anterior wall of the uterus

255
Q

what is the net diffusion potential if the membrane is permable to more than one ion?

A

the average between the conductance of the ions

256
Q

how can a genetically male person produce enough estrogen to have normal female sex characteristics

A

aromatase produced in adipose tissue will convert testosterone into estradiol

257
Q

what is the primary androgen

A

testosterone

258
Q

norepinephrine

A

a catecholamine that acts as a CNS and PNS neurotransmitter and as a hormone secreted from the adrenal medulla

259
Q

how long does the LH surge during ovulation lasat

A

48-50 hours

260
Q

what are Kv1.1 and KV1.4

what is the difference between the two

A

outward rectifiers of the Kv family

Kv1.1 is slow to open and close, KV1.4 is fast

261
Q

three treatments of hypothalamuc amenorrhea

A
  1. estrogen replacement
  2. GnRH to stimulate FSH and LH production
  3. direct FSH and LH
262
Q

what hormone produced in the hypothalamus inhibits production of GH in the anterior pituitary

A

somatostatin

263
Q

T/F together the hypothalamus and pituitary regulate almost every body system

A

true

264
Q

define resting membrane potential

what is the RMP in a normal cell

A

the membrane potential created by a distribution of ions inside and outside the cell at rest

-70mV

265
Q

what are the general time periods for the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle

A
  1. follicular phase: day 1-14
  2. ovulation: day 14
  3. luteal phase: day 14-28
266
Q

absolute refractory period

A

the interval during an AP at which time a second AP cannot occur in any circumstance

267
Q

T/F smooth muscle doesn’t have Ca channels

A

false, they don;t have Na channels

268
Q

indirect intercellular communication

A

ligands released from one cell bind to a receptor on another

269
Q

what are three methods of solute transport across cell membranes

A
  1. passive/non-carrier mediated
  2. passive/carrier mediated
  3. active
270
Q

what is the primary progestin

A

progesterone

271
Q

what is membrane potential?

A

the voltage created by differently charged ions on either side of a cell membrane?

272
Q

what happpens one a sperm penetrates an egg?

why is this relevant

A

cortical granules inside the egg release their contents to harden the egg

it is unlikely that one sperm would fertilize one ovum, so it prevents polyspermia

273
Q

potential risks of estrogen supplementation

A
  1. increase risk of MI
  2. increased risk of breast cancer
  3. increase risk of DVT
274
Q

what is the equation for net diffusion potient? what does it mean

A

Ediff = (gK/(gk + gNa)EK + (gNa/(gk + gNa)ENa

the net diffusion potential for a cell is equal to the conductance K divided by the conductance of K and Na multiplied by the equilibrium potential for K, added to the conductance of Na over conductance of both ions times the membrane potential of Na

275
Q

what are the three periods of an isotonic twitch

A

latent, plateau, and relaxiation

276
Q

what hormone allows for follicular growth

A

FSH

277
Q

what was Knobils experiment

A

he removed the arctuate nucleus from monkeys and gave them endogenous GnRH to see how the they would respond to differently levels

278
Q

what is the mean for the onset of menopause? the range

A

51

35-65

279
Q

what are 3 specific effects of androgens

A
  1. hair thickening and darkening on the face, pubic, and axilla
  2. muscle growth and maintenance
  3. vocal cord changes
280
Q

can estrogen be converted back into testosterone

A

no, they are converted by one way enzymes

281
Q

describe the hormonal process during menstruation (6)

A
  1. FSH stimulates the production of follicles
  2. follicles produce estrodiol and inhibit to decrease FSH
  3. high estradiol produces an LH surge which triggers ovulation within 38 hours
  4. follicle remains form the corpus luteum which produces progesterone
  5. fertilized egg produces HCG which saves the corpus luteum
  6. without fertilization estrogen and progesterone decrease and lead to menstruation
282
Q

how fast do calcium channels open and close in comparison to Na channels?

why is this relevant

A

more slowly

calcium channels create a more sustained depolarization which is useful in cardiac and smooth muscle

283
Q

what is the electrochemical gradient for potassium at rest

A

0.27 kcal/mol

284
Q

where are the Na/K pumps located

A

the basolateral membrane

285
Q

what influences Vmax

A

the number of ligands up to Vmax, then only increasing the proteins will change anything

286
Q

what is the cause of the absolute refractory period

A

inactivation of Na channels until the cell is hyperpolarized

287
Q

what is the charge inside the cell? why

A

negative, because the positive sodium is pumped out

288
Q

how does the myosin head uncouple from actin? how does it return to its resting state

A

ATP binds with myosin to release the actin filament, then ATP is hydrolyzed to return myosin to resting state

289
Q

if a membrane is only permeable to one ion, what will the net diffusion potential be?

A

the same as the equilibrium potential

290
Q

define menarche

what is the average age?

the range?

A

the onset of menstration

12.8

9-15.5

291
Q

what happens in secondary active transport

A

two simultaneous movement of two link substances across a cell membrane

292
Q

what stops more follicles from growing during the follicular phase

A

estradiol and inhibin B decease the amount of FSH, which slows follicular growth

293
Q

where are the receptors for non-lipid soluble (lipophobic) ligands found

A

on the cell memrbane

294
Q

what happens to the ECF and ICF with an infusion of isotonic saline

A

ECF increases with no increase in ICF because there is no change in osmolality

295
Q

four functions of the hypothalamus

A
  1. temperature control
  2. hunger
  3. thirst
  4. pituitary stimulation
296
Q

describe the variables

A
  • E si the equilibrium potential for the ion
  • R is the ideal gas constant
  • T is the temperature in kelvin
  • Xi is the ICF solute concentration
  • Xo is the ECF solute concentration
  • zx is the valence of electron x
  • F is Farraday constant
297
Q

osmolality

A

the total number of osmotically active solutes in a solution

298
Q

hormonally what happens during menopause

A

the ovaries no longer secrete estrogen so the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary produce FSH and LH to try and increase estrogen

299
Q

what current is responsible for depolarization of skeletal muscle? repolarizartion

A

INa

IKV1.1

300
Q

how does changing fiber length effect contraction strength

A

increasing the fiber lengh will stretch the sarcomeres, which can allow for more or less contract between the sarcomeres depending on the start position

301
Q

what is the effect of rm on cable properties? rin?

A

increasing rm will increase cable properties

increasing rin will decrease cable properties

302
Q

what must happen during the relative refractory period to cause another AP

A

there must be a excitatory potential strong enough to open enough sodium channels to over come the slowly closing K channels

303
Q

what is the enzyme that converts testosterone into DHT

A

5 alpha reductase

304
Q

what are four groups of amine ligands

A
  1. catecholamines
  2. thyroid hormones
  3. serotonin
  4. histamine
305
Q

at RMP what is the driving force behind K flux?

what direction does it move?

negative or positive

A

the sum of the chemical energy difference move K out of the cell minus the electrostatic attraction of K to intracellular anions

out of the cell

positive

306
Q

at what point does an embryo lose totipotency

A

when it enters the uterus 5 days after ovulation

307
Q

what are the five phases of a cardiac myocyte

A

Phase 4: rest

Phase 0: Upstroke

Phase 1: early repolarization

Phase 2: Plateau

Phase 3: final repolarization

308
Q

what are six steps in passive membrane transport through integral membrane proteins

A
  1. the carrier protein is open
  2. x enters the protein and bind to the binding site
  3. outer gate closes and x becomes trapped in the protein
  4. inner gate opens with x still bound
  5. X exits the inside of the cell
  6. the outer gate closes, occluding the empty binding site
309
Q

what is used to determine the electrochemical gradient

A
310
Q

what are the two extrinsic regulatory systems of the body

A

nervous and endocrine system

311
Q

what are 4 thinsg that happens when calcium channels open

A
  1. the PM depolarizes
  2. muscles contract
  3. secreton
  4. calcium binds to calmodulin
312
Q

when is sodium conductance the highest in a neuronal cell? potassium?

A

during depolarization

during repolarization

313
Q

if estradiol levels are found to be normal in an amenorrheic patient what can we conclude

A

that her ovaries, pituitary, and hypothalamus are all working properly

314
Q

why did the monkeys in Knobils experiment stop producing LH despite increasing levels of GnRH

A

the target cells downregulated their receptor production because there was too much GnRH

315
Q

what is the relationship between solute concentration and water concentration

A

as solute concentration goes up water concentration goes down

316
Q

what is the equation for conductance? what are the variables?

A

I = gV

I = current

g = conductance

V = voltage

317
Q

what are the five structural classifications of chemical messangers

A
  1. amino acids
  2. amines
  3. steroids
  4. proteins
  5. eicosanoids
318
Q

what will the mullerian ducts form into

A

fallopian tubes, uterus, upper vagina

319
Q

how does male endocrine control differ from female

A

FSH acts on the testes to stimulate sperm production

LH stimulates secretion of androgens

320
Q

menstrual cycle

A

the periodic release of an egg from the ovary to a prepared uterus, and the shedding of the uterine lining if the egg is not fertilized

321
Q

describe the process for the posterior pituitary to secrete hormones

A
  1. ADH and oxytocin are made in the hypothalamus
  2. hormones are packed and sent to the neural endings in the pituitary
  3. when stimulated the hypothalamic neurons release hormones into the blood
322
Q

what is the sequence of female pubertal development

A
  1. breasts
  2. pubic hair
  3. growth
  4. menarche
323
Q

dopamine

A

a catecholamine CNS neurotransmitter

324
Q

SRY

A

sex determining region of the Y chromosome which determines if ovaries or testes will form

325
Q

what is the RMP of skeletal muscle

A

-90mV

326
Q

what position is the myosin cross bridge in relation to actin at rest

A

at a 90 degree angle and not touching

327
Q

what might be suspected besides menstration when a pediatric patient presents with vagina bleeding

A
  1. foreign body
  2. sexual abuse
  3. trauma
328
Q

what type of receptor is a nicotinic receptor

what does it do?

A

a fast ion channel

when bound with acetylcholine nicotinic receptors open and allow flux of ions

329
Q

what is the physiologic definition of conductance

A

the rate at which an ion corsses a 1cm area of a membrane driven by a 1 M concentration gradient

330
Q

why is epithelial transport important to homeostasis

A

it controls the composition of interstitual fluid through membrane transport between the body and environment

331
Q

rm

A

the resistance of the cell membrane to positive outward current

332
Q

describe the process of calcium release through mechanical coupling in skeletal muscle

A
  1. skeletal muscle is stimulated by AcH release from a neuron
  2. skeletal muscle depolarizes, opening L type calcium gated channels on the T tubule
  3. L type channels physically bind to calcium release channels on the SR
  4. calcium release channels release calcium into the T tubule to bind with troponin allow myosin cross bridges to form
333
Q

what are inward potassium rectifiers

what do they do

A

potassium channels with a Mg “gate” that only allows one way diffusion of potassium

return the cell membrane back to RMP after hyperpolarization

334
Q

what type of receptor is a muscarinic receptor?

what does it do?

A

slow response receptor bond it an ion channel

  • acetylcholine from a neuron binds to muscarinic receptors on smooth muscle or another neuron
  • GDP is released and phosphorylated into GTP
  • GTP binds to a Na(neuron) or Ca(smooth muscle) channel to allow flux
335
Q

if motor unit 1 requires a 5 V stimulus, unit 2 a 10, and unit 3 a 15 V stimulus, how much will it take to stimulate all the motor units

A

15V

336
Q

what cells in the testes secrete testosterone

A

leydig cells

337
Q

what is the largest energy expenditure in basal metabolism

A

the Na/K pump

338
Q

what is HCG?

what produces it?

A

human chorionic gonadotropin

a fertilized embyro implanted into the uterus

339
Q

GHRH/GHIH

A

growth hormone releasing/inhibiting hormone

340
Q

what will a fetal ovary produce that will determine gender

A

estradiol and oocytes

341
Q

what is the equation used to determine RMP? explain

A

Em = Ediff + EP

the RMP is equal to the net diffusion potential plus the electrogenic pump potential

342
Q

what do the wollfian ducts and mullerian ducts determine

A

internal genital development

343
Q

flow

A

movement of matter

344
Q

what current is responsible for Phase 0? what creates it

A

INA

flux of sodium through gated channels

345
Q

T/F the size of the follicular cohort varies with age

A

true

346
Q

what causes smooth muscle excitation

A

either electric coupling or autonomic stimulation

347
Q

what are the four main hypothalamic-pituitary axes

A
  1. tthyroid
  2. adrenal
  3. liver
  4. gonads
348
Q

what is the primary mineralocorticoid

A

aldosterone

349
Q

receptor antagonist

A

an exogenous compound that binds to a receptor and produces no response

350
Q

why is it impractical to measure the concentration of water

A

because there is too mich water to be accurate

351
Q

what happens to current when the membrane potential (Vm) is equal to the equilibrium potential (Ex)? why?

A

there is no flow of current

because there is no driving force

352
Q

what are the three steps in the life cycle of a follicle

A
  1. resting phase
  2. active phase
  3. ovulation or death
353
Q

at what age would menopuase be considered premature

A

younger than 35

354
Q

how can a chromosomal XY fetus end up without male genitalia

A

if the androgen receptors in development are not sensitive the testes will not descend and male genitalia will not form

355
Q

what four actions signal follicle activation

A
  1. flattened granulosa cells becoming cuboidal
  2. proliferation of granulosa
  3. formation of the zona pelucida
  4. growth of the oocyte
356
Q

what are the two refractory periods of an action potential

A

absolute and relative

357
Q

what four hormones are capable of cross reacting with other receptors at high doses

A
  1. FSH
  2. LH
  3. HCG
  4. TSH
358
Q

what two factors determine the amount of flux (diffusion)

A
  1. permeability of the membrane to X
  2. magnitude of the gradient fo X across the membrane
359
Q

receptor agonist

A

an exogenous compound that binds to a receptor and causes a normal biologic response

360
Q

what are the three major events of the luteal phase

A
  1. progesterone production
  2. corpus luteum death without a fertilized egg
  3. CL saved by HCG produced by a fertilized egg
361
Q

what are four common specific amino acid messangers

A
  1. glutamate
  2. aspartate
  3. glycine
  4. GABA
362
Q

summation

A

when successive depolarization events converge on a muscle cell, causing the release of more calcium and a stronger contraction

363
Q

A type rectifying channels

A

KV 1.4

364
Q

what is testosterone converted into

A

dihydrotestosterone

365
Q

why does the menopause cause peripheral dilation, perspiration, compensatory tachycardia

A

hypothalamic disregulation causes the hypothalamus to think body temp is too high and tries to cool down

366
Q

what are three indicators of androgen sensitivity syndrome

A
  1. 46 XY genome
  2. absent uterus and upper vagina
  3. no androgen receptors mean no pubic or axillary hair
367
Q

why does a cell do osmotic work

A

to counter act donnan forces that move ions into the cell

368
Q

what would you expect to see in tertiary ammenorrhea

A

low BMI, high stress level, or delayed puberty

369
Q

what are two methods of regulating a hormonal response once it has started

A

changing the production of the stimulating ligand

changing the rate of clearance

370
Q

why must animal cells perform osmotic work

A

because animal cells swell rather than increase osmotic pressure as water enters and must pump water out of the cell

371
Q

describe the interaction between the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to secrete hormones

A
  1. neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus produce releasing hormones
  2. releasing hormones are secreted in to the hypothalamic-pituitary portal system
  3. the portal system carries releasing hormones to the anterior pituitary and stimulates the secretion of trophic hormones
372
Q

what is the gentital determinant of gender

A

whether there are ovaries or testes indicated by high levels of androgens

373
Q

elasticity

A

the force a subtance produces that resists change in shape

374
Q

what are the primary endocrine organs (9)

A
  1. hypothalamus
  2. pituitary
  3. pineal
  4. thyroid
  5. parathyroid
  6. thymus
  7. adrenal
  8. pancreas
  9. gonads
375
Q

four symptoms of menopause

A
  1. amenorrhea
  2. vasomotor flushes
  3. decreased vaginal lubrication
  4. accelerated calcium loss
376
Q

what is totipotency?

why is a relevant?

A

the ability for any cell from a blastocyst to produce a fetus

blastomeres can be removed for genetic testing

377
Q

what are the negative feedback mechanisms that control male endocrine function

A

inhibin from sertoli cells reduces FSH

increased circulating testosterone decreases LH

estrogen aromatized from testosterone deceases FSH

378
Q

what is a fast response receptor? give two examples

A

when the plasma membrane receptor and effector are the same protein

nicotinic receptor and tyrosine kinase receptor

379
Q

what effect can clinical down regulation of GnRH receptors have

A

reversible menopause or andropause

380
Q

based on chemical energy and concentration, where will potassium be driven in the cell

A

it will depend on if the chemical energy is overcome by potential energy of the concentration gradient

381
Q

what is a simple way the body can regulate function

A

by regulation of current flux and flow

382
Q

what does it mean to say the equilibrium potential of potassium is -90mV

A

at any membrane potential greater than -90mV, K will flux into the cell due to the electrochemical driving force

383
Q

four types of hormone interaction

A
  1. antagonistic
  2. addittive
  3. synergistic
  4. permissive
384
Q

How many different receptors can a ligand bind to

A

usually more than one, but different receptors have a different affinity for a single messanger

385
Q

motor unit

A

a neuron and all the muscle fiber it innervates

386
Q

what does it mean to say Na has and equilibrium potential of +60mV

A

it will require a membrane potental greater than 60mV to stop Na flux due to diffusion

387
Q

what two factors allow a follicle to become the “dominant follicle”

A
  1. increased number of FSH receptors
  2. increased vascularity
388
Q

what were two important early discoveries from Knobils experiment

A
  1. when the arctuate nucleus was removed prolactin stayed high
  2. increasly high doses of GnRH only increased LH levels to a certain amount before they dropped off
389
Q

what is the normal concentraion of calcium in the cytoplasm?

where is the majority of calcium stored

A

0

in the sacroplasmic reticulum

390
Q

Ito

A

current created by potassium flux through transient outward gated potassium channels during phase 1 of a cardiac myocyte action potential

391
Q

describe an example of signal amplification

A
  1. catecholamine bind to adrenergic receptor
  2. receptor produces several G proteins
  3. each G protein activates one adenylate cylase
  4. each adenylate cyclase produces several cAMP
  5. each cAMP activates several protein kinases
  6. each protein kinase phosphorylates several proteins
392
Q

what two factors effect the cable properties of a cell

A
  1. rm
  2. rin
393
Q

what lab values would you expect in secondary ovarian failure

A

defininatly decreased FSH and LH

possibly increased prolactin or decreased TSH leading to hypothyroid

394
Q

gonadal dysgenesis

A

failure of the germ cells to migrate to the gonads during development

395
Q

what is used to determine the concentration gradient

A

the ideal gas law

396
Q

arcuate nucleus

A

a collection of neurons that produce GnRH in the hypothalamus

397
Q

tyrosine kinase receptor

A

a fast PM enzyme that phosphorylates tyrosine with ATP to make PTP and cause a cellular response

398
Q

T/F cardiac muscle doesn’t require an outside stimulus

A

true, pacemaker cells will depolarize on their own, gap junctions allow for the AP to travel, and the ANS modulates the response

399
Q

FSH

A

follicle stimulating hormone

400
Q

what is cervical mucosa like around ovulation

A

copius, clear, and supportive

401
Q

ohms law

A

the amount of number of ions that move from one area to another is equal to the voltage difference between the ions divide by the resistance

402
Q

how does physiologic regulation take place

A

through communication between structures using chemical signals

403
Q

what three ligands are transported by diffusion

A

autocrines, paracrines, neurotransmitters

404
Q

what are two plasma membrane receptors that a ligand will bind with

A
  1. ion channels
  2. enzymes
405
Q

what is the equilbrium potential of sodium? potassium?

A

Na: 72.9 mV

K: -91.68 mV

406
Q

what happens in cardiac pacemaker cells during phase 3? what is the cause?

A

final repolarization

L type calcium channels close, Kv1.1 channels are open, resulting in a strong outward IKv1.1

407
Q

contractile component of muscle

A

cellular components that generate force (sarcomeres)

408
Q

what is the difference between a neurotransmitter and hormone

A

where they are found

409
Q

describe the load-velocity curve

A

higher loads produce more force but less velocity, therefore less power

loads that are too low produce high speed but don’t generate much force, there for less power

410
Q

where do most hypothalamic hormones bind

A

to receptors on the pituitary

411
Q

length constant

A

the distance that a graded potential will travel through cytoplasm until it has diminished to 37% of its original strength

412
Q

antiport

A

coupled transport where the two substances move in opposite directions

413
Q

when is FSH the highest during the follicular phase? when does it decrease?

A

FSH is the highest during menses, decreasing during follicle recruiment

414
Q

if a male were to present with extremely high levels of FSH and LH what would you expect

A

primary testicular failure caused by infection or pituitary tumor

415
Q

what are three catecholamines

A
  1. epinephrine
  2. norepinephrine
  3. dopamine
416
Q

what is the most common cause of secondary ammenorrhea

A

pregnancyq

417
Q

FSH is needed to progess between what two follicular states?

A

preantral and antral

418
Q

what will stimulate the onset of puberty

A

increased body size, specifically body fat, that stimulates leptin production

419
Q

what two hormones are secreted from the posterior pituitary

A
  1. oxytocin
  2. ADH
420
Q

what happens if a membrane potential is positive

A

cations are less likely to diffuse into the cell because the inside is positive

421
Q

what is the electrical definition of conductance

A

1 seimen of conductance will produce a 1 amp current when the potential is 1 volt

422
Q

why would high BMI delay menopause

A

because aromtase conversion of androgens to estrogens will continue to stimulate the uterus

423
Q

what is happening during phase 4 in a cardiac pacemaker cell? what causes it?

A

slow diastolic depolarization

If and ICaT currents bringing Na and Ca into the cell, IKv1.1 moving K out of the cell in opposition resulting in a slow progression to threshold

424
Q

what is an example of a cell that places aquaporins based on hormonal control

A

cells in the renal collecting duct in response to ADH

425
Q

what is a denuded oocyte? how can one be made?

A

a oocyte with all the cumulus cells stripped away by pipetting or enzymes, leaving only the zona pellucida

426
Q

T/F receptors show specificity for a messanger

A

true

427
Q

name and describe the axis that produces cortisol

A

adrenal axis

  1. CRH is produced in the hypothalamus and released into the blood
  2. CRH stimulates anterior pituitary produce of ACTH
  3. ACTH acts on the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol
428
Q

what is the relationship between membrane potential and current

A

for Na and K, increasing the membrane potential will increase the current

429
Q

what were three final conclusions from Knobils experiments

A
  1. the ovary and production of steroids are most important to menstruation
  2. GnRH is secreted in pulses
  3. constant GnRH will cause down regulation of receptors
430
Q

how is secretion rate regulated

A

negative feedback through end product inhibition

431
Q

nicotinic receptor

A

a fast ion channel receptor found on the PM of in muscle and nervous tissue

432
Q

what happens to an older mother who is fertilized with older eggs

A

she has a success rate higher than she would using her own eggs

433
Q

what formula is used to determine single species ion flow

A

Ix = gx (Vm - Ex)

I = current

g = conductance

(Vm - Ex) = the electrochemical driving force across a membrane

434
Q

what two hormones are secreted by growing follicles?

what is their effect on menstruation

A

estradiol and inhibin B

decrease production of FSH by through negative feedback at the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

435
Q

what hormone is elevated in a pediatric patient with an enlarged uterus and early onset period

A

estradiol

436
Q

what happens to active force as length increases? passive force?

A

active force decreases, passive force increases

437
Q

name and describe the axis that produces GH

A

growth hormone axis

  1. GHRH is produced in the hypothalamus
  2. GHRH stimulates production of GH in the anterior pituitary
  3. GH acts on somatic cells to produce growth
  4. GH also acts on the liver to produce IGF
438
Q

define all variables

A

R = ideal gas constant (.002kcal/mol)

T = temp in Kelvin (310 in humans)

Xi = intracellular fluid concentration of X

X0 - extracellular fluid concentrationof X

439
Q

statistically speaking older mothers are less likely to carry to term and more likely to produce a fetus with birth defects

why?

A

because older eggs are less capable

440
Q

what two things regulate the secrete of anterior pituitary hormones

A
  1. negative feed back from the trophic hormones
  2. negative feed back from organ stimulated by pituitary hormones
441
Q

what lab values would you expect in primary ovarian failure

A

increased LH and FSH as the pituitary tries to stimulate estrogen production

442
Q

what is KM a measure of

A

affinity of a ligand for its receptor

443
Q

what causes the change in cervical mucosa throughout the menstrual cycle

A

estradiol

444
Q

paracellular epithelial transport

A

substances bypass the cell and cross epithelium through cell junctions

445
Q

what happens when myosin binds to actin

A

ADP and P are released, allowing the myosin head to move from a 90 to 45 deg angle to actin

446
Q

what is the process of a neuronal depolarization, propogation, and repolarization (10)

A
  1. Excitatory impulses release acetylcholine on to nicotinic receptors
  2. nicotinic receptors open ligand gated sodium channels
  3. summation of EPSPs opens enough ligand gated sodium channels to bring the neuron to threshold (-55mV)
  4. the axon hillock depolarizes, opening a cascade of Na channels
  5. the charge is propogated down the axon by sequentially opening Na channels
  6. As the membrane potential increases, voltage gated KV 1.4 channels open
  7. at Vm 30mV sodium channels are closed, KV 1.1 channels are open
  8. as Vm decreases, Kv 1.1 channels close slowly
  9. hyperpolarization occurs as Vm drops below RMP
  10. inward rectifiers allow potassium flux back into the cell to return it to RMP
447
Q

what drives the rhythm of the menstrual cycle

A

maturation of the follicle and oocyte

448
Q

apical membrane

A

the cell surfaces that face inward toward a lumen

449
Q

histamine

A

a paracrine amine ligand derived from histadine

450
Q

what three things are needed for sperm production (what do they do)

A
  1. FSH (sertoli cell function)
  2. LH (stimulates leydig cells to make androgens)
  3. high levels of intratesticular testosterone
451
Q

what are three causes of precocious puberty

A
  1. central lesion in the CNS
  2. peripheral increase in estrogen
  3. obesity
452
Q

list the androgens from least to most potent

A

dihydroepiandrosterone, androstenedione, testosterone

453
Q

PRH/PIH

A

prolaction releasing/inhibiting hormone

454
Q

why would obesity cause precocious puberty

A

adipose tissue contains aromatase which will convert androgens into estrogens and stimulate menses and breast development

455
Q

secondary ammenorrhea

A

the absence of a period for three months in a women who prevously had them

456
Q

what are the hormones released by the hypothalamus

A
  1. PRH
  2. PIH
  3. TRH
  4. CRH
  5. GRHR
  6. GHIH
  7. GnRH
457
Q

what will fetal testes produce that determine gender

A

testosterone to maintain the wolffian ducts and anti-muellarian hormone to regress the muellarian ducts

458
Q

primary amenorrhea

A

never had a period before

459
Q

what happens when calcium binds to calmodulin

A

protein kinase is formed, which phosphorylates protein to cause a response in the cell

460
Q

what is a T tubule? what is the function?

A

extensions of the cell membrane from one muscle cell to another

they allow for rapid activation of L type calcium channels and propogate depolarization to surrounding cells

461
Q

what three factors determine the magnitude of cell response to a ligand

A
  1. messanger concentration
  2. number of receptors on target cell
  3. affinity between receptor and ligand
462
Q

what are two methods for cells, tissues, and organs regulation

A

extrinsic and intrinsic

463
Q

what is the nerst equation and what is it used for

A

used to determine the equilibrium concentration of an ion

464
Q

cable properties

A

the ability of the cytoplasm to conduct electricity

465
Q

how are hormones transported in blood

A

some can dissolvle in blood, some need a protein carrier

466
Q

what direction does a positive delta G move

A

out of the cell

467
Q

what ion channels cause depolarization in smooth muscle? why is this relevant

A

Calcium channels

because calcium channels open much slower than Na channels and produce a slower depolarization

468
Q

what percent of the total sperm content semen are motile and morphologically normal

A

about 1/2

469
Q

how do carrier proteins regulate blood hormone levels

A

lipoholic hormones can only have a concentration equal to the concentration of carrier proteins

470
Q

recruitment

A

the stimulation of multiple muscle fibers through a stronger stimulus

471
Q

how do ligands with intracellular receptors create a response in the cell

A
  • hormones bind to receptor
  • hormone/receptor complex binds to DNA at a promotor
  • allow for gene expression and protein synthesis
  • new protein produces a response
472
Q

primary ovarian failure

A

dysfunction of the ovaries that doesnt allow for menstruation

473
Q

T/F preovulatory follicles can be seen under a microscope

A

true

474
Q

what is happening in cardiac muscle during Phase 1? what is the cause

A

early repolarization

transient outward rectifiying K channels open as Na gated channels are closing

475
Q

fused tetanus

A

when summation by repeated stimuli causes a max tension curve with no individual contractions

476
Q

autocrine

A

a ligand secreted by a cell into the ECF that binds on its own receptors

477
Q

two places where epithelial transport takes place

A
  1. apical membrane
  2. basolateral membrane
478
Q

two ways to produce a functiona vagina

A

progressive vaginal dilation or surgery

479
Q

what happens to ECF and ICF with an infustion of solute free water

A

the ECF experiences an intial decrease in osmolality, causing solutes to diffuse out of the ICF to restore equalibrium

480
Q

additive hormone effects (example)

A

two hormones have the same effect through different mechanisms, so the effect is the sum of the individual effects (cortisol and GH on lipolysis)

481
Q

what would happen if there were no plateau in an isometric contraction

A

there would be no shortening of sarcomeres greater than the elasticity of the tendons, so no movement would take place (isometric)

482
Q

two types of epithelial cell junctions

A
  1. tight
  2. leaky
483
Q

leuprolide

A

GnRH antagonist used to decrease estrogen or androgen production by downregulating GnRH receptors

484
Q

described the amount of force produced by these situations

  1. actin myosin overlapping
  2. actin myosin in contact with no H band
  3. actin myosin in contact with an H band
  4. actin myosin with some heads exposed
  5. no contact of the myosin heads
A
  1. less force because some of the cross bridge sites are covered by the adjecent actin filament
  2. maximum number of cross bridges = max force
  3. max force because there are no exposed myosin heads
  4. less force because of fewer binding sites are accessible
  5. no force because there are no binding sites accessible
485
Q

why are Kv1.1 channels called delayed outward rectifiers

A

they are slow to completely open and slow to completely close

486
Q

what current is at work during each phase of a cardiac myocyte contraction and what direction is it moving

A

phase 4: IKir, into the cell

phase 0: INa, into the cell

phase 1: Ito

phase 2: ICaL, IKv1.4, IKv1.1

phase 3: IKv1.1

487
Q

what is the equilbrium potential for sodium

A

around 70mV

488
Q

how is calcium removed from the cytoplasm?

A

Na-Ca pump and Ca pump remove calcium from the cell

Ca sequestering pump pumps Ca into the SR where it bound to calreticulin and calsequestrin

489
Q

explain how high TSH can cause early onset period

A

TSH in high doses can cross react with GnRH receptors in the ovary and produce estradiol

490
Q

what are three types of ligands that can’t cross the cell membrane

A
  1. proteins
  2. amino acids
  3. amines (except thyroid hormone)
491
Q

what two ions are not included in the chord conductance equation? why?

A

Cl and Ca

because Cl regulates passively and plays no role in forming potentials, and animal cell membranes are virtually impermeable to Ca

BMS 752 (Medical Physiology) (13 decks)

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