Unit C 死记烂背 Flashcards
C2.1
6 Steps of Cellular Chemical Signalling
- Synthesis
- Diffusion
- Binding
- Signal Transduction
- Cellular Response
- Signal Termination
C2.1
4 Steps of Vibrio fischeri Quorum Sensing
- N-acyl homoserine lactone binds to regulators to induce lux operon.
- Lux operon encodes regulatory proteins and produces luminescent proteins.
- Luminescent proteins eg. Luciferase produce light when oxidising substrates eg. Luciferin by reversible redox reactions eg. into Oxyluciferin.
- High concentrations of autoinducers in a large population produce protective effect.
C2.1
3 Types of Hormones
Amino-acid Derived - derived from tryptophan and tyrosine
- water soluble
melatonin (pineal gland)
thyroxin (thyroid gland)
epinephrine, norepinephrine (adrenal gland)
Peptide - polypeptides/glycoproteins
- water soluble
insulin (pancreas)
oxytocin
HGH
FSH
Lipid Derived / Steroid - derived from cholesterol
- lipid-soluble
oestradiol
testosterone
cortisol
aldosterone
C2.1
3 Types of Neurotransmitters
Amino Acid fast synaptic transmission Glycine
Glutamate
GABA
Peptide regulates metabolic processes Neuropeptide Y
Amine
Serotonin
Dopamine
Norepinephrine
C2.1
5 Types of Signalling
- Autocrine Signalling - same cell
- Paracrine Signalling - cells in the vicinity
- Endocrine Signalling - distant cells
- Juxtacrine Signalling - cells in immediate physical contact
- Gap Junctions - intracellular junctions linking adjacent cells
C2.1
5 Types of Receptors
- Cell-Surface Receptor
bind to extracellular signalling molecules to initiate signalling cascade- Enzyme-linked
- G-protein-linked
- Ion-channel-linked
- Intracellular Receptor
bind to intracellular, small lipid-derived signalling molecules to form hormone-receptor complex- Type I, Cytoplasmic Receptor
translocated to nucleus - Type II, Nuclear Receptor
directly involved in transcription by binding N-terminal
- Type I, Cytoplasmic Receptor
C2.1
5 Steps of Signal Transduction
- Receptor activation
- Amplification
- Second messenger production
- Activation of protein kinases
- Changes in gene expression, ion channel function, or enzyme activation
C2.1
5 Pathways of Signal Transduction Termination
- Diffusion
- Degradation
- Reuptake
- Feedback Inhibition
- Receptor Deactivation
C2.1
4 Steps of G-Protein Function
- binding of a ligand to GPCR:
- phosphorylates GDP to GTP
- separates a and bg subunits
- separates subunits from GPCR
C2.1
9 Steps of Epinephrine Function
- binding of a ligand to GPCR:
- phosphorylates GDP to GTP
- separates a and bg subunits
- separates subunits from GPCR
- alpha-subunit binds to adenylate cyclase
- Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP
- cAMP activates protein kinase A
- PKA activates phosphorylase kinase
- Phosphorylase kinase activates glycogen phosphate
C2.1
5 Steps of Insulin Function
- Insulin binds to beta receptor
- Tyrosine kinase in beta receptor autophosphorylates
- Tyrosine kinase phosphorylates Insulin Receptor Substrate 2
- Cascade attracts vesicles of GLUT-4
- GLUT-4 increases ability of cells in adipose and muscle tissue to intake glucose
C2.1
3 Functions of Insulin
- peripheral insulin sensitivity
- beta-cell development
- central leptin sensitivity
C2.1
4 Steps of Oestradiol Genomic Binding
- Oestradiol binds to oestradiol receptors
- Oestradiol detaches Heat Shock Protein 90
- HSP90 is translocated to nucleus
- HSP90 interacts with regulators or transcription factors
or cAMP → PKA which activates some transcription factors {non-genomic binding)
C2.1
4 Steps of Oestradiol Non-Genomic Binding
- Oestradiol binds to oestradiol receptors
- Oestradiol detaches Heat Shock Protein 90
- HSP90 is translocated to nucleus
- cAMP → PKA activates transcription factors
C2.1
2 Steps of Oestradiol effect on LH and FSH
- Increased oestradiol increases GnRH Gonadotropin Regulating Hormones
- Increased GnRH increases anterior pituitary gland secretion of LH and FSH
C2.1
3 Functions of Progesterone
- Induces differentiation in endometrial
- Induces proliferation of endometrial cells
- Produces mucus to help sperm reach ovum
C2.1
6 Steps of Positive Feedback in Blood Clotting
- Intrinsic/extrinsic pathway activates Factor X
- Factor X converts Prothrombin to Thrombin
- Thrombin activates Factor X
- Thrombin combines Fibrinogen to Fibrin
- Thrombin activates Factor XIII
- Factor XIII stabilises Fibrin
C2.1
3 Steps of Negative Feedback in Homeostasis of Blood Glucose
- Blood glucose rises
- Pancreas secretes insulin
- Blood glucose falls to 90 mg/dL
C2.2
4 Steps of Nerve Impulse Generation
- Depolarisation
- Repolarisation
- Hyperpolarisation
- Resting Potential
C2.2
3 Factors Affecting Nerve Impulse Propagation Speed
- Diameter
- Temperature
- Myelination
C2.2
6 Steps of Synaptic Transmission
- Action potential arrives presynaptic neuron
- Calcium influx through voltage-gated channels
- Vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane
- Neurotransmitters diffuse across synaptic cleft
- Neurotransmitters bind to postsynaptic receptors
- Summation of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters
C2.2
6 Steps of Neonicotinoid Effects
- Neonicotinoids are similar in chemical structure to acetylcholine
- Inhibits cholinergic receptors
- Not broken down by acetylcholinesterase
- Permanent binding
- Prevent action of acetylcholine
- Paralysis
C2.2
7 Steps of Cocaine Effects
- Cocaine is similar in chemical structure to dopamine
- Inhibits dopamine reuptake proteins
- Dopamine accumulates in synaptic cleft
- Psychoactive effects due to amplified signals
- Continuous consumption creates more dopamine receptors
- More dopamine needed to achieve similar level of excitation
- Addiction
C2.2
6 Types of Receptors in Skin
- Nociceptors - pain
- Thermoreceptors - temperature
- Meissner’s Corpuscles - light pressure, slow vibration
- Pacinian Corpuscles - heavy pressure, fast vibration
- Ruffini Endings - skin stretch, continuous pressure
- Free Nerve Endings - pain EPSPs
C2.2
3 Layers of Skin
- Epidermis - protective barrier, strength, waterproofness
- Dermis - blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands, sensory receptors, strength, elasticity
- Hypodermis - fat storage, shock absorption, thermal insulation
C1.1
4 Limiting Factors of Enzymatic Metabolism
- Enzyme concentration
- Substrate concentration
- Temperature
- pH
C1.2
6 Steps of Glycolysis
- Glucose → glucose-6-phosphate (ATP → ADP)
- Glucose-6-phosphate → Fructose-6-phosphate
- Fructose-6-phosphate → Fructose-1,6-phosphate (ATP → ADP)
- Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate → 2 Triose phosphate
- 2 Triose phosphate → 2 Bisphosphoglycerate (NAD → NADH)
- 2 Bisphosphoglycerate → 2 Pyruvate (2ADP → 2ATP)
C1.2
2 Steps of Link Reaction
- Pyruvate → Acetate + CO2 (NAD → NADH)
- Acetate + CoA → Acetyl-coA
C1.2
7 Steps of Krebs Cycle
- Oxaloacetate + Acetyl-coA → Citrate
- Citrate → Isocitrate
- Isocitrate → alpha-Ketoglutarate + CO2 (NAD → NADH)
- alpha-Ketoglutarate → Succinate + CO2 (NAD → NADH) (ADP → ATP)
- Succinate → Fumarate (FAD → FADH2)
- Fumarate → Malate
- Malate → Oxaloacetate (NAD → NADH)
C1.2
6 Steps of Oxidative Phosphorylation
- Charge Separation - NADH → NAD + H+ + e-
- Electron Transport Chain - electrons travel releasing energy through series of redox reactions
- Proton Pumping - energy used to pump H+ into intermembrane space by active transport
- Chemiosmosis - diffusion of H+ from intermembrane space into matrix
- ATP Synthesis - H+ binding to ATP synthase causes conformation change, causing ADP + Pi → ATP
- Oxygen - O2 + 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2O. Cycle repeats.
c1.3
7 Steps of Non-Cyclic Phosphorylation
- Excitation - PSII electrons absorb energy, moving to higher energy level
- Electron Transport Chain - electrons travel releasing energy through series of redox reactions
- NADP Reduction - emits electron to NADP reductase
- Proton Pumping - ETC energy used to pump H+ into thylakoid membrane space by active transport
- Chemiosmosis - diffusion of H+ from thylakoid membrane space into stroma
- ATP Synthesis
- Photolysis - 2H2O → 4H+ + 2O + 4e- to replace PSII electron
C1.3
5 Steps of Cyclic Phosphorylation
- Excitation - PSI electrons absorb energy, moving to higher energy level
- Electron Transport Chain - electrons travel releasing energy through series of redox reactions
- Proton Pumping - ETC energy used to pump H+ into thylakoid membrane space by active transport
- Chemiosmosis - diffusion of H+ from thylakoid membrane space into stroma
- ATP Synthesis
C1.3
5 Steps of Calvin Cycle
- RuBisCO fixes 6 CO2 to RuBP
- 6-carbon compound splits into 2 G3P
- G3P reduced to triose phosphate by ATP hydrolysis and NADPH oxidation
- 2 triose phosphates form 1 glucose
- 10 triose phosphates regenerate 6 RuBP
C1.3
3 Pigments in Plants
- Chlorophyll a - 440 nm
- Chlorophyll b - 590 nm
- Carotenoids - 470, 510 nm
C1.3
3 Advantages of Having Multiple Pigments
- Combination of pigment molecules increases the photon absorbance frequency
- Greater proportion of sunlight can be used for photosynthesis
- Reduction of light energy loss by fluorescence
C1.3
3 Limiting Factors of Photosynthesis
- Temperature
- Light Intensity
- CO2 Concentration
C4.1
5 Steps of Speciation
- Different environmental biotic and abiotic factors
- Different selective pressures
- Divergent evolution
- Reproductive isolation
- Repeated breeding results in speciation
C4.1
3 Types of Isolation
- Geographic Isolation
- Behavioural Isolation
- Temporal Isolation
C4.1
4 Properties of K-Strategists
Small population
Each offspring receives more parental care
Long life span
Large body size
eg. oak trees, elephants
C4.1
4 Properties of r-Strategists
Large population
Each offspring receives less parental care
Short life span
Small body size
eg. jellyfish, dandelions
C4.1
5 Steps of Counting Motile Organisms
- Capture a sample of motile organisms.
- Mark the organisms using a small amount of non-toxic waterproof paint in an area which does not affect the survival of the organism.
- Released the first sample.
- After 24 hours, capture a second sample in the same area. Count the number of marked organisms in the sample.
- Using the Lincoln Index formula P = MN/R, estimate the total population.
C4.1
4 Assumptions of Capture-Mark-Release-Recapture
- Marking technique does not affect chances of survival.
- Marked sample fully reintegrates into the population and has an equal chance of being in the second sample.
- No births, deaths, or migrations.
- The ratio of marked to unmarked individuals in the second sample is equal to that of the general population.
C4.1
4 Types of Mutualistic Relationships
- Mutualism - both organisms benefit
- Commensalism - one organism benefits without significant effect to the other
- Parasitism - parasite benefits at expense of host
- Pathogenicity - pathogen harms host
C4.1
4 Models of Speciation
- Allopatric - Geographic isolation due to physical barrier
- Peripatric - Geographic isolation by breaking off from majority
- Parapatric - Behavioural isolation
- Sympatric - Reproductive isolation due to genetic polymorphism
C4.1
2 Biochemical Processes in Interspecific Competition
- Allelopathy - Juglans nigra releases juglone as growth inhibitor
- Antibiotic Secretion - Streptomyces bacteria releases streptomycin
C4.1
Autotrophs vs Heterotrophs
- Autotrophs synthesise own unorganic molecules for nutrition
- Heterotrophs obtain nutrition by consuming organic matter of other organisms
C4.2
4 Reasons for Energy Loss in Food Webs
- Energy lost from respiration as heat
- Energy used for metabolism
- Egestion
- Not all of prey is eaten/digested
C4.2
Difference between Nutrient and Energy Flow
- Nutrients are recycled within an ecosystem by decomposers
- Energy enters ecosystem and is dispersed as heat. Ecosystems require a constant source of energy from sunlight
C4.2
5 Steps of Nitrogen Cycle
- Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in legume root modules absorb atmospheric nitrogen
- Decomposers and nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil synthesis ammonia
- Nitrifying bacteria converts ammonia into nitrites then nitrates
- Plants assimilate nitrates
- Denitrifying bacteria converts nitrates into nitrogen
C4.2
4 Consequences of Enhanced Greenhouse Gas Effect/Global Warming
- Increased detritus decomposition rate in permafrost.
- Changes in distribution of temperate/arctic predators/prey.
- Increased success of pathogens/pests (esp. zoonotic transmission).
- Rising sea levels and loss of ice habitat due to melting glaciers.
C4.2
7 Components of Carbon Cycle
- plant respiration
- plant photosynthesis
- animal respiration
- animals consume plants
- decomposer respiration
- fossil fuel combustion
- ocean absorption
C4.2
6 Consequences of CO2 Increase
- rising sea levels causes flooding
- global warming + enhanced greenhouse effect
- extreme weather patterns
- melting glactiers
- mass extinction events
- changes in ocean currents
