Unit A Review Flashcards
How would you apply Maturity related behaviour to a child?
Look at how mature they are in scenarios. Do they have the attention span needed? do they understand the terms used?
How would you apply individual Development readiness?
Look at the individual and see if they have developed enough to move up a step within a task such as the next level of sport.
How do we apply an individuals response to performance pressures?
Children want to play sports for fun, so should we add the pressure of keeping score and see who wins? or let the kids play out no matter the score.
How do we apply sex differences to children?
Do boys and girls play together? If they play together, when do we separate them?
How do we apply maturational considerations?
How do we handle the occurrence of early and late maturers within sports?
How do we apply safety and liability issues?
When is it safe to include risk factors in sports? Such as body contact in hockey and tackling in football.
How do we apply sensitive and critical periods?
Need to look at when is the best time to introduce new topics to children such as bone health.
Why are studies on children more difficult than adults?
This is due to the variability from age to age. Children vary in size, motor skill, physiological aspects, etc. This means that when comparing children, you can only compare to that specific age group and sex.
What is the difference between a cross-sectional study and longitudinal study?
Cross-sectional is usually comparing two groups together. They are much quicker, cheaper, but gives only rough ideas to what could happen over a longer period of time.
Longitudinal studies follow a group over a longer period of time. They cost more money and the dropout rate is much higher. However, these give accurate results over long periods of time.
What is plastic processes?
Many Factors that affect growth in children
What is development?
The progression and regressions that happen over our entire lifespan. This covers biological, behavioural and motor changes.
What is growth?
This is the structural aspects of development. Looking at how the body grows in size for example.
What is maturation?
Looks at the functional changes within humans. How do processes change?
What are the different development ages and their associated age range?
Why is there an overlap on some?
Prenatal - conception -> birth
Infancy - Birth -> 2 years
Childhood - 2 -12 years
- Early childhood - 2->6 years
- Late childhood - 6-12 years
Adolescence - 11/13 -> 18 years
- females(11-18) males(13-18)
Adulthood - 18+ years
There is an overlap in adolescence and childhood due to different children starting puberty at different times.
What is Hyperplasia?
This is an increase in cell number
What is Hypertrophy?
This is an increase in cell size
What is accretion?
This is an increase in intercellular substances
When do we see more hyperplasia? Hypertrophy?
We see much more hyperplasia during prenatal and infancy.
We see more hypertrophy during childhood and adolescence.
What is a distance curve?
Distance curve indicates the total height at a certain age. Only shows the total height achieved.
What is a velocity curve?
This curve looks at the change in the rate of change over time. does not look at a total. Looks at the rate of change from one point to the next.
What are the key points of a velocity curve for growth?
Accelerating - growth acceleration leading up to growth spurt
Peak Height Velocity - the peak of growth rate.
Deceleration - the decrease in growth rate after growth spurt.
Termination of growth - when growing is done(velocity = 0)
What is scammons growth curve?
What does his graph show us?
A growth curve created in 1923. It shows the relation of multiple body parts throughout growth to the average adult size. It compares body part sizes by percentage in relation to the average adult size.
What is important about the process of maturation?
The process can occur at any time, however the process of maturation will not change. Changes will occur in the same order for everyone. There is no specific point in time someone will start this process.
Is the maturation process observable?
No it is mostly unobservable, so it is inferred.
What is the difference between Maturation and Maturity?
Maturation is the process it takes to obtain a status(adult). Maturity is the status.
What are the different ways to calculate age?
Chronological age - in calendar years
Biological Age - observable, measurable. based on the state of your body
Maturational age - looks at maturation which is inferred; not readily observable.
What are the different prenatal stages and their relative time period of development?
Egg - first 2 weeks
Embryo - week 2-8
Fetus - week 9-40
What prenatal stage has more hyperplasia and hypertrophy?
Embryo has more hyperplasia and fetus has more hypertrophy.
Which stage do we see functional development?
Fetus
At what point has most of the fetal length occurred? What about weight?
50% of fetal length occurs halfway through(20 weeks). Fetal weight does not start increasing until the last 20 weeks. only 10% of fetal weight has occurred at 20 weeks.
Describe the different proportional sizes with the head to the body in early and late fetal development.
At early fetal development, the head is roughly 50% of the fetus length. At the end of fetal development, it is roughly 25% the fetal length.
When would you feel the baby more while in the womb? First or second half? why?
Due to there being more space available in the first half, you won’t notice the fetus moving. During the second half, the fetus is larger meaning there is less space. You will feel the movements more and the movements can also be more intense.
Why is birth weight important? What does it tell us?
Birth weight is a good indication of maternal and newborn’s health and nutrition. It can also give good indications to lifelong health.
How does prenatal nutrition affect post natal physical activity?
Undernourished fetus’ were more likely to become less active after being born. Over compensation to fix the undernourishment did not fix the lack the physical activity.
How does smoking affect the fetus?
Smoking can affect birthweight but also cognitive abilities and development
What are the big factors affecting prenatal growth and development?
Nutrition, smoking and alcohol
Is physical activity important for pregnancy?
Yes, physical activity is becoming critical for a healthy pregnancy. It is recommended to do more than 150 minutes of moderate exercise per week over at least 3 days.
How is post natal growth the same and different for each person?
The pattern to reach their end size will always be the same. But the final size and their rate of growth will be different.
What is the trend with percentiles and late childhood growth?
Usually the percentile line you start your late childhood growth on is the percentile you will finish on.
How would you describe someone on the 80th percentile for height.
This person is taller than 80% of people and/or shorter than 20% of people.
Is a child in the 90th percentile for weight considered obese?
You can’t use percentile graphs to determine if someone is obese or not. These graphs do not take in height and body composition. They can be used for general ideas and can give indication for any health concerns.
How would an early maturer look on a percentile graph?
Early maturers will shoot up the percentiles as they will have grown before most kids their age making them taller and bigger than most. They will then return to their “normal” percentile when other kids “catch up” to them as they hit puberty.
How would you describe a late maturer on a percentile graph?
A late maturer will drop down percentiles early on as others hit puberty. They will then rise up the percentiles, returning to their previous “normal” percentile at later ages.
What is scaling and when is it used?
Scaling is the adjustment of physiologic variable for body size. This is important when trying to compare children to adults.
What is somatotyping?
Somatotyping is a way of classifying people into certain categories based on physique.
What makes up bone tissue?
Collagen, minerals and cells
What are the 2 major minerals in bone tissue?
Calcium and phosphate
What are the two different types of bone?
Compact - hard bone for protection and strength
Trabecular(spongy) - Reduces the weight of the bone while still providing strength. Also where RBCs are made.
What are the 3 main bone cells? what are their function.
Osteoblasts - bone formation
Osteoclasts - bone resporption
Osteocytes - regulation of flow of minerals and nutrients. maintains mechanical strain.
What is turnover and what bone cells are responsible for it?
Turnover is the constant creation of new bone. Where old bone is removed so new bone can be made. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts are responsible for this.
What are the 4 steps/stages of bone turnover?
Resting - can see osteocytes, nothing is occurring
Resorption - osteoclasts remove bone
Reversal - osteoclasts leave, osteoblasts go to location of removed bone
Formation - osteoblasts place new bone
How often does bone growth and remodeling occur in both infancy and adulthood?
infancy = 50% annually
Adulthood = 5% annually
What would happen if we didn’t have remodeling?
Our bones would get wider from osteoblasts constantly adding new bone on top of old bone.
formation to resportion ratio in childhood, adulthood, and elderly.
Childhood - Formation > resorption
Adulthood - Formation = resorption
Elderly - formation < resorption
What happens when formation < resorption?
This is what causes osteoporosis. Bone is being taken away faster than it is being replaced.
What is osteoporosis?
where bone is taken away and weakens the bones increasing the risk of fracture.
When is the best time to prevent osteoporosis?
Childhood. You want to increase you peak bone mass during childhood, so you have more bone when you are older. This may not prevent osteoporosis but can delay it for years.
When will the first skeleton be completed? What’s different about this skeleton?
The first skeleton will be completed within 3 months of gestation. This first skeleton will be completely cartilage.
What are the different directions of bone growth? Where do they occur?
Longitudinal growth - the bones increase in length; occurs at the epiphysis
Appositional growth - widens and thickens
What allows osteoblasts to enter the cartilage skeleton begin bone growth? Why is this possible?
Cartilage cells are in rows and not tightly packed. This allows blood vessels to penetrate the surface. These blood vessels are what allow osteoblasts to come and start turning the cartilage into bone.
Is compact bone or spongy bone formed first?
Spongy bone is formed first.
Where does bone formation start?
Works from the middle of the bones to the ends
What is developed near birth to help with bone growth? What area of bone growth does this help?
Secondary ossification centre. This helps with longitudinal growth.
What is the growth plate?
This is where cells are proliferating(cells are increasing in number) which allows the bone to continue growing.
What marks the end of post natal growth?
The disappearance of the growth plates. This is the union of the diaphysis and epiphysis.
Does exercise cause the growth plate to disappear early?
Exercise does not do anything directly to affect when the growth plate disappears.
What are the different zones in the bone for growth?
Reserve zone - contains cartilage, lipids, nutrients; allows growth to occur
Proliferating zone - where hyperplasia occurs; organizes cartilage into columns
Hypertrophic zone - cartilage cells grow in size; prepare to be replaced by bone
Zone of ossification - allows for osteoblasts to lay done bone and replace the cartilage
What drive linear growth?
Growth plate chondrogenesis
- proliferation of cartilage to be replaced by bone
Out of the following factors, what are positive bone growth factors and negative bone growth factors?
Thyroid hormone, GH, IGf-1, corticosteroids, estrogen, cytokines, androgens
Positive - Thyroid hormone, GH, IGF-1, estrogen, androgens
Negative - corticosteroids and cytokines
What is the formation:resorption ratio for periosteal surface endosteal growth?
Periosteal - Formation > resorption
Endosteal - Formation < resorption
Which gender lays more bone in the periosteal layer and the endosteal layer?
Male - periosteal
Females - endosteal
what are the 3 regions or bone and where are the located?
Epiphysis - end of the bone
Metaphysis - middle where the bone starts to get wider
Diaphysis - shaft of the bone
Do male of female have more bone mass in adulthood? Is the proportion of bone mass to total weight different?
Males will have more bone mass but both genders will have roughly 6-7% of their weight as bone mass.
Does bone length and bone mineral content increase proportionally at the same rate?
No, bone will increase in length before bone mineral content will increase.
Why is there an increased risk of bone fractures in adolescents? is this permanent?
There is an increase in fractures due to the bones having less minerals in them. Meaning the bones are less dense.
This risk is only transient, once bone mineral content catches up to length, the risk of fractures will decrease greatly.
What athletes have higher bone mineral density?
High-impact load athletes. This includes runners, jumpers, etc.
Does bone strength in youth affect young adulthood?
Yes, the benefits of building stronger bones through physical activity as a youth will carry into young adulthood.
What is the optimal does to increase bone strength?
You only need a low amount of physical activity to increase bone strength. A little bit goes a long way.
When is the critical window for increasing bone strength?
ADolescence/puberty is the best time to increase bone strength.
Childhood/pre-puberty is also good but not the best.
What changes with the chemical composition of muscles with growth?
The total number will increase with growth and the proportions will also change with growth.
What is myogenesis?
This is muscle formation in embryo.
What is the order of myogenesis?
Mesodermic cell -> myoblasts -> myotube -> Muscle Fibre
What are mesodermic cells?
The beginning of muscle cells, these will develop into myoblasts
What are myoblasts?
These are the cells that make muscles. Each one contains a single nucleus. These create myotubes.
What are myotubes?
These contains muscle nuclei.These will grow and mature to create a muscle fibre.
What is a muscle fibre? When do these grow?
The combination of multiple myotubes.
These grow pre and postnatally.
When will we see the number of muscle fibres increase?
Most of the increase is during prenatal development. But will continue through for the first year of life.
What is myostatin?
Myostatin slows down muscle growth.
What happens when deficient in myostatin?
This will cause children to become very muscular as there isn’t enough myostatin to inhibit muscle growth.
What changes with the muscle during muscle growth?
The structure will stay the same but the size will change. Lots of hypertrophy will occur.
What is the turnover rate for muscle?
~1-2% annually.
What is the different connective tissue surrounding the muscle?
Endomysium - around fibre
Perimysium - around bundle
Epimysium - around musce
How does the tendon change with growth? what are the differnces between a young tendon and an adult tendon?
Youth tendons are much more flexible and have more give to them. This means they transmit less force. Adult tendons are stiffer and have less give, allowing better transmission of force. This allows the tendons to produce explosive movements.
What does the tubular system do for muscle and does it cause a difference in strength between children and adults.
This system is for communication and it does not contribute to a difference in strength.
How many types of muscle fibres are there?
3.
Type 1, 2a and 2b
When do muscle fibres differentiate into different types?
After week 30
What are Type 2c muscle fibres?
These are undifferenciated muscle fibres that turn into type 1 or type 2a fibres after 1 year.
How does each characteristic change with growth?
- # of fibres/motor unit?
- units/muscle?
- Activation?
- Maximal strength?
of fibres/muscle unit = increase with aging
units/muscle = decrease with aging
activation = increase with growth
Maximal strength = increase
What does maximal force rely on?
Muscle size and neural activation?
How does muscle strength compare from men to boys?
Maximal strength increases with age, even after correcting for muscle size
How does motor unit activation change with growth?
Motor unit activation increase with growth
How do muscle fibres grow postnatally?
They grow by hypertrophy mostly.
When do we see muscle fibres increase diameter with growth?
infancy -> adolescence/adulthood
When do we see muscle fibre diameter decrease with aging?
Middle age -> onward
When do we see a difference in muscle fibre size between boys and girls usually?
Boys = 14
Girls = 10
Which gender has a higher increase in fat mass?
Girls
What is the definition of endocrine, paracrine, autocrine?
Endocrine - secretes something to help tissues further away.
Paracrine - makes and secretes something to help nearby
Autocrine - acts on itself
What is the 2 main functions of fat?
Energy storage and insulation
What is an adipocyte? What is the structure like?
This is a fat cell. There are few mitochondria meaning low energy metabolism and lots of blood vessels as adipocytes act on other tissues and need the vessels for transport.
What are adipokines?
Secretions by adipocytes.
What is leptin? What was the main research around leptin?
Leptin regulates energy balance, food intake, and mostly glucose and lipid metabolism.
Leptin was looked at as a possible cure for obesity caused my leptin deficiency.
What are the 4 main molecules secreted by adipocytes? What do they do?
Lipoprotein lipase(LPL) - regulation of lipid storage; breaks down fat cells
Leptin - regulation of energy balance
IGF-1 - regulation of growth
Estrogen - pubertal changes
What is adipogenesis?
This is the creation of adipose tissue.
What are the 4 stages of adipogenesis?
Adipoblasts - nucleus but not lipids yet
Pre-adipocytes - some lipids, will start to see secretion of adipokines
Very small adipocytes - more lipids in the molecules
Mature adipocytes - multiple lipid molecules come together to create one large adipose tissue.
What is white adipose tissue?
Cell is a large single droplet of lipid. Nucleus is pushed to top of cell.
What is Brown adipose tissue?
Multiple Small droplets of lipid. The nucleus is centralized, with more mitochondria, and more hemoglobin. This means it will have more energy expenditure.
What is the major functional difference between white and brown adipose tissue?
White fat cells store fat.
Brown fat cells burn energy.
What is IRISIN? When is it secreted? How does it affect fat?
IRISIN is secreted by muscle during exercise and it causes white fat to turn into brown fat. Also known as fat browning. This causes energy expenditure and metabolism to be increased.
Why do babies have so many adipocytes?
This is to help with nutrition during early post natal period.
Where do we see hypertrophy of adipose tissue during growth?
Mostly first year and during puberty.
Where do we see hyperplasia of adipose tissue during growth?
No hyperplasia during infancy. Hyperplasia occurs during late childhood and adolescence.
What is the trend of adipose tissue for males and females heading into adulthood?
Females tend to have a steady increase in fat mass whereas males tend to decrease in fat mass.
What is body composition?
Partitioning and quantifying basic components of body mass.
What is the importance of body composition?
Sport performance, thermoregulation, and risk factor for diseases.
What is two-component and multi-component body composition models?
Two-component - compares composition of fat to everything else as non-fat
Multi-component - breaks non-fat into all specifics
What are the 4 common methods of estimating body composition and give a brief explanation of them?
Densitometry - measures density(Density = mass/volume)
BIA - measures total body water mass.
DXA - measures bone mineral content, fat and non-bone fat-free mass.
Anthropometry - measures subcutaneous fat
Order from least to most dense. Lean tissue, fat, water.
Fat, water, lean tissue.
What is BMI? Why does it suck?
Measures body composition by a weight to height ratio. It does not measure fat. Meaning someone really muscular can have the same BMI as someone overweight.
What are the reasons for increases in obesity?
Increased caloric consumption
Increased fat consumption
Decreased physical activity
What is the trend with physical activity as age increases?
Time spent being physically active decreases as age increases.
What are the 4 components of ParticipACTION?
Sweat - MVPA
step - light physical activities
sleep - getting the required amount of sleep each night
sit. - not going over 2 hours of sedentary time at a screen
What are some reasons for decreases in physical activity?
Increased urbanization
Safety considerations
Facilities
Technology
