unit 6 cognition Flashcards
An intermediate level of processing that involves using the sound of information to be remembered to aid in memory.
acoustic encoding
A problem-solving method which attempts every possible option to a problem and guarantees the correct solution.
algorithm
The inability to create new memories while older memories remain intact. This usually occurs because of a traumatic brain injury or stroke.
anterograde amnesia
A problem-solving strategy which attempts to find a solution by considering the first information that comes into one’s mind, this shortcut may lead to an incorrect conclusion.
availability heuristic
The tendency to reject conflicting evidence and stick to one’s original thoughts even in the face of contradictory information.
belief perserverance
The process of separating large amounts of information into smaller, more manageable parts in order to increase the amount of information that can be held in short-term memory.
chunking
A type of retrieval cue in which memory is improved when individuals are in the same place that the information was originally encoded.
context specific learning
An approach to problem-solving which results in one correct solution.
convergent thinking
The ability to generate original and workable solutions or ideas to a problem.
creativity
A concept proposed by Raymond Cattell which refers to a person’s collected knowledge that continues to increase with age.
crystallized intelligence
A technique for learning in which material to be remembered is broken up across several sessions during multiple time periods and has much higher retention rates than cramming.
distributed practice
An approach to problem-solving that involves creating multiple possible solutions to a problem and thinking outside of the box. This is often associated with creativity.
divergent thinking
A type of sensory memory in which an auditory stimulus disappears within a few seconds after it has been removed and will not be recalled unless one has attended to the sound in an effort to transfer it to short-term memory.
echoic memory
Adding the maximum number of associations to a concept to aid memory.
elaborative rehearsal
The process of placing new information into memory.
encoding
A type of explicit (declarative) long-term memory for an experience or event from one’s life. Examples include remembering one’s graduation or fifth birthday party.
episodic memory
Categories of long-term memories that can be consciously recalled. These may include both semantic and episodic memories.
explicit (declarative) memories
Vivid, long-lasting episodic memories which are generally associated with a significant personal or collective events. Even though these memories are robust, they are generally no more accurate than other types of memories.
flashbulb memories
A concept created by Raymond Cattell which involves the ability to solve unique tasks and respond quickly to novel cognitive tasks. This ability generally decreases after middle age.
fluid intelligence
The way in which a question is worded which may impact on what types of responses, potentially leading to the misinformation effect. For example, if an investigator asks a person what type of gun a suspect had during a crime, it automatically suggests a gun was present.
framing effect
A challenge in problem solving because one can only think of objects according to their most common uses. This may result in low levels of creativity and may inhibit one’s problem-solving abilities.
functional fixedness
A shortcut or rule of thumb for solving a problem that saves time but that does not guarantee the correct response.
heuristic
A type of sensory memory in which a visual stimulus will be forgotten within a few seconds unless it is attended to and transferred to short-term memory.
iconic memory
Types of long-term memories which one knows but cannot recall precisely where the skill or information was learned.
implicit (non declarative) memories
The sudden realization of the answer to a problem one is attempting to solve.
insight
The potentially endless and relatively permanent warehouse for memories.
long term memory
A memory technique in which one repeats information to be remembered over and over again. This results in a shallow level of processing and the information is generally forgotten rather quickly.
maintenance rehersal
Thinking about one’s own thinking. This is often employed by cognitive psychologists to help understand problem-solving strategies.
metacognition
A mnemonic device that involves mentally walking through a familiar location and placing items to be recalled in certain areas of that location (rooms of a house). Generally, it is far easier to recall the items as this technique relies on robust visual memories and associates those with familiar information (the rooms in one’s home).
method of loci
A phenomenon that occurs when a person recalls inaccurate or misleading information from another source other than the one from which they are trying to retrieve the memory.
misinformation effect
A memory technique which works by associating already learned information with information one is attempting to learn. Examples include, visual imagery, or acronyms to assist in memory.
mnemonic device
The ease in which an individual remembers information when they are in the same emotional condition as when they learned the information.
mood congruent memory
A method of learning that involves rehearsing information beyond the point of perfect recitation, which reduces or eliminates the impact of the forgetting curve.
overlearning
The tendency for items at the beginning of a list to have higher rates of recall than those later in the sequence when trying to remember a list that exceeds the capacity of short-term memory.
primacy effect
The presentation of a sensory stimulus to aid recall. For example, to help someone remember the words to a song, you sing the first few words.
priming
Forgetting newer information because older, similar information is blocking the creation of new memories.
proactive interference
The knowledge of the skills required to complete a given task, such as knowing how to skateboard.
procedural memories
A type of memory which involves remembering to do something in the future, such as remembering to pick up groceries on the way home from work.
prospective memory
The best representation of a given category. For example, a car is generally a more frequent example of a vehicle than a boat.
prototype
A type of memory recovery in which a person must bring back detailed information without any assistance or cues.
recall
The tendency to recall items at the end of a list more easily than items at the beginning of the list when items to be recalled exceeds the capacity of short-term memory.
recency effect
A type of memory recovery in which a person must identify the correct response from several possible choices presented.
recognition
A problem-solving shortcut used for making judgments about a person or event based on how closely it matches one’s prototype or best example of a category.
representativeness heuristic
The process of recovering or locating information stored in memory.
retrieval
Memory failure for older memories because similar, recently learned information gets in the way of the recovery of older memories.
retroactive interference
The loss of information for events and information that occurred before the onset of amnesia.
retrograde amnesia
A cognitive structure for organizing information which aids perception and problem- solving and often develops from interaction with one’s environment to help to create expectations about life experiences.
schema
One’s general accumulation of knowledge. This can be related to a dictionary or encyclopedia representing what a person knows.
semantic memories
The first stage in the memory process that includes iconic and echoic memories which last only a few seconds if no effort is made to recall the information.
sensory memories
This theory poses that one is more likely to recall items at the beginning and the end of the list better than those in the middle when the amount of information exceeds what can be held in short-term memory.
serial position effect
The cognitive processing of a stimulus that focuses on the superficial, perceptual qualities rather than the deeper meaning of items to be remembered. This tends to result if weak, short-lived memories.
shallow processing
The reproduction or recall of a limited amount (possibly between 5 and 9 bits) of information which generally lasts between 10 and 30 seconds without repetition or practice.
short term memory (working memory)
The inability to recall the origin of information while not forgetting the information itself.
source amnesia
The theory that an individual is better able to remember information in the same physiological condition as when the information was first learned.
state-dependent memories
Refers to the inability to retrieve a given piece of information even though the individual knows it exists somewhere in their memory store.
tip of the tongue phenomenon
A type of logical processing that involves making a conclusion based on a set of premises including one that is assumed to be an accepted truth. The type of reasoning involved when making predictions based on accepted theories.
deductive reasoning
A model is memory posed by Atkinson and Shiffrin states that information to be stored moves through three stages during encoding: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
information processing model of memory
The tendency to place an emphasis on starting values/beliefs when making decisions under uncertain conditions. One will generally not move very far away from this starting value.
anchoring heuristic
Inductive reasoning is a type of problem-solving that involves making general principles based on a set of observations. This is involved when generating hypotheses based on specific facts.
inductive reasoning
