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unit 5 - ecology Flashcards

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1
Q

organism definition

A

any living thing

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2
Q

population definition

A

group of organisms of same species in same area

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3
Q

community definition

A

populations of 2 or more different species occupying same geographical area

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4
Q

what is variation

A
  • defining feature of life
  • difference b/w members of a group (can be discrete or continuous)
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5
Q

example of discrete vs. continuous variation

A

blood type vs. body mass/height

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6
Q

purpose of intraspecies variation

A

enables better survivability of organisms and drives change in species

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7
Q

what does amount of variability depend on

A

how closely related individual organisms are
- ex. same species = less variability, diff species = large amount of variability

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8
Q

what does species refer to

A

groups of living things recognizably distinct from all others (biological species concept)

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9
Q

what is morphology

A

how species were originally groups (based on shapes/structure of organisms)

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10
Q

limitations of morphology

A
  • two groups may look alike but aren’t the same (ex. some butterfly species)
  • genetically diverging populations may be hard to distinguish
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11
Q

rules of binomial nomenclature of species

A
  • genus = capital letter
  • species = lowercase letter
  • name MUST be italicized (underlined it writing)
  • after one use, can be abbreviated to first letter of genus + full species name
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12
Q

benefits of binomial nomenclature

A
  • doesn’t vary b/w regions (universally accepted) allowing scientists from different regions to communicate
  • reflects evolutionary relationships b/w organisms <– can determine how closely species are related
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13
Q

what is the morphological species concept

A

when species are classified based on shape/size of individuals

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14
Q

what is the biological species concept

A

when species are classified as a group of individuals that can breed w/ each other but not w/ other groups
- offsprings must be viable and fertile

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15
Q

if a horse and donkey can produce a mule, why are they not the same species? (based on biological species concept)

A
  • mules are sterile, cannot reproduce
  • mules have 63 chromosomes (horse = 64, donkey = 62) so they cannot pair creating non-functional gametes
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16
Q

4 challenges of biological species concept

A

hybrids
variation across geographical ranges
asexual organisms
testing reproduction b/w groups

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17
Q

challenges of biological species concept - hybrids

A

offspring can result from sexual reproduction of 2 closely related by separate species which can breed together HOWEVER offspring cannot reproduce
- often seen in plants (artificial breeding b/w species for improved traits)

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18
Q

challenges of biological species concept - variation across geographical ranges

A
  • species are not discrete grouping but approximation
  • term “species” doesn’t reflect gradiant of variation within species
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19
Q

challenges of biological species concept - asexual organisms

A

do not interbreed so biological species concept is inapplicable
- rather classified by appearance, biochemical similarities

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20
Q

challenges of biological species concept - testing reproduction b/w groups

A
  • classifying species involves observing of natural breeding but can be impractical
  • ex. deep sea creatures, too hard to observe
  • ethical constraints of interfering w/ animals
  • not possible for extinct species so must use morphological species concept
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21
Q

species as hypothesis

A
  • species classification is always a hypothesis
  • even formally named + described organisms are still hypothesis because new evidence could appear
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22
Q

what is speciation

A

if two populations of same species don’t interbreed –> physical+behavioural differences accumulate –> can diverge to point of being separate species
- hard to distinguish during process

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23
Q

speciation of brown + polar bears

A
  • closely related but geological locations means they don’t often mate
  • speciation can be distinguished to be 1.3-1.6 million years ago
  • didn’t stop ability to mate–> climate change creating hybrids
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24
Q

speciation of killer whales

A
  • incredibly hard to distinguish because of similar looks
  • diff groups of killer whales are considered diff species not populations because they don’t mate w/ each other
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25
Q

why can’t all organisms of species interbreed w/ each other

A

reproductive barriers (ex. distance)

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26
Q

population size meaning

A

total # of individuals –> must be estimated

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27
Q

difference b/w estimate and guess

A

estimation = based on evidence/random sampling
guess = random

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28
Q

how to get a good sample

A

every individual of population should have equal chance of being included in sample, avoiding bias

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29
Q

what are samples used for? what is sampling error

A

making inferences abt entire population
- differences b/w sample statistic and true population value

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30
Q

what is quadrat sampling, how do you find population size from it

A

repeatedly place quadrat squares in random locations and record # of organisms
- pop size: (average # of individuals per quadrat)x(total # of quadrats)

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31
Q

what organisms is quadrat sampling suitable for

A
  • sessile (non-mobile) organisms –> cannot move b/w quadrats <– prevents them from being count many times
  • ex. plants, fungi, very slow moving insects
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32
Q

what does standard deviation mean regarding quadrat sampling

A
  • how evenly distributed population is
  • low: population is spread evenly b/w quadrats
  • high: population is spread unevenly b/w quadrats (some w/ more, some w/ less)
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33
Q

how does the capture-mark-release-recapture method work, what organisms is it suitable for?

A
  • capture individuals
  • mark them
  • release them back into habitat
  • recapture them and count marked ones
  • suitable: mobile organsims
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34
Q

assumptions being made when doing capture-mark-release-recapture mathod

A
  • no migration
  • no deaths/births
  • marked individuals have same chance of being recaptured as unmarked
  • marks remain visible
  • marks don’t impact survival
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35
Q

carrying capacity meaning

A

max population size that environment can support

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36
Q

how is the carrying capacity affect by and how is it naturally determined

A
  • resource availability affects size of population (abiotic and biotic)
  • as resources become scarce: competition increases
  • as population increases: some individuals cannot get resources –> die
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37
Q

what are the 2 factors affecting population size

A

density-independent factors
density-dependent factors

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38
Q

what are density-independent factors regarding population size

A
  • has same impact on population no matter population size
  • ex. forest fires –> kills everything
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39
Q

what are density-dependent factors regarding population size

A
  • impact depends on population size (larger impact when population size is large)
  • ex. negative feedback (population controlling mechanisms) more disease + competition + predation w/ large population compared to smaller one
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40
Q

why are population growth curves exponential, when is it seen

A
  • reproduction is exponential
  • positive feedback: breeding –> more individuals = more individuals to breed –> more individuals
  • seen when populations enter new habitats (many resources, no predators)
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41
Q

why don’t populations just continue to grow forever

A

density-dependent factors exist to control population size

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42
Q

what are the phases of the sigmoid population growth curve

A
  • exponential phase
  • transitional phase
  • plateau phase
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43
Q

what occurs in exponential phase of sigmoid population growth

A
  • population increases more and more rapidly (exponential)
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44
Q

what occurs in transitional phase of sigmoid population growth

A
  • population growth slows as limiting factors start to have larger effects
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45
Q

what occurs in plateau phase of sigmoid population growth

A
  • population remains close to carrying capacity
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46
Q

common pattern in predator-prey population graphs

A
  • cyclical oscillations in predator-prey population sizes (high predator = low prey, low predator = high prey)
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47
Q

four main interactions in predator-prey cycle

A
  • increase prey –> increased food for predator –> increase in predator
  • increase in predator –> more predation –> decrease prey
  • decrease prey –> less food –> decrease predator
  • decrease predator –> less predation -> increase prey
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48
Q

what is top-down control in food chains

A

interactions that act from higher trophic level to lower one
- ex. increase in predator = decrease in prey

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49
Q

what is bottom-up control in food chains

A

interactions that act from lower trophic level to higher one
- ex. low minerals in soil = producers cannot grow as much

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50
Q

intraspecific relationships meaning

A

relationships b/w individuals of the same species –> usually within same population

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51
Q

intraspecific relationships - competition + examples

A
  • members of population share same resources
  • unless resource = abundant –> competition occurs leading to some individuals suffering and others benefit
  • some individuals are more successful –> natural selection
  • ex. plants for sunlight, animals for food, flowers for pollinators
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52
Q

intraspecific relationships - cooperation

A
  • occurs less in plants more in social animals (ex. termites)
  • all individuals benefit
  • ex. communal roosting, parental care
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53
Q

what is herbivory + examples

A

primary consumers feeding off producers (which may or may not die)
- ex. rabbits, deer

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54
Q

what is predation + examples

A

one consumer species kills and eats another consumer species
- ex. tigers, lions

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55
Q

what is mutualism + examples

A

two species living in close association where both benefit from association
- ex. bees + flowers, clownfish + anemones

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56
Q

what is parasitism + examples

A

one species living in/on another species and obtaining food from them (parasite benefits, host harmed)
- ex. tapeworms

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57
Q

what is pathogenicity + examples

A

one species pathogen lives inside another and causes disease to host
- ex. infection bacteria, viruses (?)

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58
Q

what is interspecific competition + examples

A

two or more species use the same resource, one species reducing the resource of others
- ex. woodpeckers vs. squirrels (fight for nesting holes), cheetahs vs. lions (similar diets)

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59
Q

orchid and fungus as example of mutualism

A

orchid: supplies carbon compounds + sugars (from photosynthesis) to fungus
fungus: absorbs nitrogen, phosphorus, water, carbon from organic compounds from soil –> supplies to orchid

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60
Q

endemic species definition, how are they controlled?

A

species that occur naturally in an area and only in that area
- density dependent factors

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61
Q

alien species vs invasive species, why aren’t they controlled?

A

alien species: those introduced by humans to area –> become invasive when they increase in number and spread rapidly
- population isn’t regulated by natural predators

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62
Q

what is the competitive exclusion principle

A

two species cannot occupy the same role in an ecosystem forever –> too much competition

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63
Q

red lionfish as example of invasive species

A
  • endemic to parts of indo-pacific
  • escaped from aquarium in florida in 1992
  • spread to corals in florida +caribbean due to lack of predators, aggressive nature
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64
Q

zebra mussels as example of invasive species

A
  • endemic to black sea region (eurasia)
  • arrived in great lakes via ballast water on ships
  • spread to ontario, quebec, manitoba
  • filters plankton out of water, depleting food source for endemic species
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65
Q

how is quadrat sampling/chi-squared used for testing for interspecific competition?

A
  • by recording presence/absence of species in each quadrat, can test for association (chi squared)
  • competitive exclusion –> species rarely found in same quadrat
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66
Q

why choose to do experiments vs. observations

A

experiments: used when factors must be controlled for result
observations: used when observing species in natural environment

67
Q

meaning of positive association in chi-squared test + examples

A
  • species are found in same habitat (exists together)
  • ex. predator-prey, herbivore-plant
68
Q

meaning of negative association in chi-squared test

A
  • species occur separately in diff habitats (exists apart)
  • ex. competitive exclusion
69
Q

meaning of no association in chi-squared test

A
  • species occur as frequently together as apart (doesn’t matter whether they are together or apart)
70
Q

primary vs. secondary metabolites

A

primary: substances produced by shared metabolic processes in organisms
secondary: substances produced by pathways specific to certain species

71
Q

are secondary metabolite essential for growth of organism? give examples

A
  • no
  • ex. antibiotics, allelopathic agents (biochemicals produced by organism that have negative affect on neighbouring organisms)
72
Q

what is penicillium, overview of antibiotic production

A
  • genus of fungus found in soil, fruit, bread, cheese
  • secretes antibiotic penicillin which interferes with peptidoglycan molecules in cell walls –> become weak and die
73
Q

habitat definition

A
  • place where organisms live (geographical location)
  • the physical conditions/ecosystem type/place in ecosystem
74
Q

examples of abiotic factors of habitat

A

temperature, rainfall

75
Q

biomes definition

A

groups of similar ecosystems w/ similar abiotic conditions

76
Q

what is convergent evolution

A

when plants/animals evolve to have similar adaptations to adapt to similar conditions
- distantly related species that face same probs find same solutions

77
Q

distribution meaning (regarding species)

A

where species live in the world

78
Q

what variables affect plant distributions?

A
  • temperature, water availability, light intensity, soil pH etc.
  • the adaptations plants can make to accommodate variables
79
Q

what variables affect animals distribution?

A
  • water availability, temperature
  • can be limited by requirements of life cycle
80
Q

tolerance meaning (regarding species)

A

range of tolerance an organism has for abiotic factors
- limiting factor

81
Q

what is a transect

A

straight line that cuts through a natural landscape so that standardized observations can be made along it

82
Q

how does a line transect work

A

tape a line, any organism touching the line is part of the sample

83
Q

how does a belt transect work

A

have a line of quadrants, take data from each quadrant

84
Q

how does an observational transect work

A

walk along a defined line and record sightings of target species

85
Q

required conditions for coral reefs

A

depth, pH, salinity, clarity, temperature

86
Q

coral reefs and zooxanthellae mutualism

A

zooxanthellae needs light for photosynthesis so it can provide coral with building blocks of sugars/proteins, giving it needed nutrients
- corals provide them with a protected environment

87
Q

ecological niche meaning

A

the role a species plays in its environment
- because every species has a unique role in an ecosystem

88
Q

what is a fundamental niche

A

range of tolerance for the species
- ecological role species plays when there’s no competition
- “where COULD they fit?”

89
Q

what is a realized niche

A

actual range covered by species in ecosystem
- ecological niche actually occupied by species w/ competition
-“where do they actually fit”

90
Q

what does ecological theory state

A

that all species in an ecosystem must have a unique realized niche

91
Q

how are realized niches exposed

A

when fundamental niches of two species overlap, competition <– where one species will win over the other

92
Q

what happens when fundamental niches completely overlap and one species always outcompetes the other?

A

the underperforming species will be eliminated from the whole ecosystem

93
Q

adaptation definition

A

a change/process of change by which organism/species becomes better adapted to its environment

94
Q

adaptations of lyme grass to sand dunes

A
  • sand dunes have little water + organic matter, high salt –> dehydration occurs
  • LG: thick waxy cuticle to reduce transpiration
  • leaves roll up during droughts >humid chamber reduces SA
  • rhizomes (underground stems) grow upwards as sand accumulates and extend deep into dune obtaining water
95
Q

adaptation of mangrove trees to mangrove swamps

A
  • mangrove swamps have waterlogged anaerobic soils w/ high salt content
  • MT: secretion of excess salt from salt glands in leaf
  • root epidermis coated in cork->less permeability to salt
  • vertical root branches grow vertically into air to absorb O2
  • stilt roots grow downward supporting tree in the mud
  • large buoyant seeds –> carried by away currents
96
Q

abiotic factors of hot deserts

A
  • high daytime temps, colder nights
  • low rainfall, long periods of drought
97
Q

how does saguaro (cactus) adapt to hot desert environment?

A
  • wide spreading + deep root system (max water absorption)
  • fat stems w/ storage tissue
  • pleated stems to allowing growing in rain shrinking in droughts
  • CAM metabolism (open stomata at night to reduce transpiration)
98
Q

how do fennec foxes adapt to hot desert environment?

A
  • nocturnal +builds den underground (less extreme temps)
  • thick hair for insulation
  • light coat colour (absorbs less sun)
  • large ears (high SA for cooling)
  • ventilation rate can be 600 breaths/min (panting = regulated temp)
99
Q

abiotic factors of tropical rainforests

A

high temps, high precipitation, light light intensity

100
Q

how do meranti trees adapt to tropical rainforests?

A
  • hard, dense trunks to protect against winds
  • enzymes tolerate 35C for optimal performance
  • broad oval leaves + smooth trunk to shed rainwater
101
Q

how do spider monkeys adapt to tropical rainforests?

A
  • long hook-like arms/legs for climbing
  • flexible shoulders + long tail
  • developed larynx that is louder in dense rainforest
102
Q

hominidae family

A

great ape family, includes humans, orangutans, gorillas, cimpanzees

103
Q

how is the hominidae family and dentition related

A
  • herbivores: large flat molars to grind down plant tissue
  • omnivores: flat to grind plant tissue + sharp to tear meat
  • can infer diet of extinct species by looking at teeth
104
Q

what adaptations of beetles+aphids (herbivores) allow them to feed on plants

A

beetles: jaw-like mouthparts for biting off, chewing, ingesting leaves
aphids: tubular mouthparts for piercing leaves/stems to reach phloem and feed on sap

105
Q

what adaptations do some plants have to resist herbivory

A
  • tough, sharp pointed spines
  • synthesizes toxic substances <– secondary metabolites
  • however some herbivores have adaptations to detoxify them
106
Q

physical/structural adaptations

A
  • take longer to develop
  • genetic change
107
Q

chemical adaptations

A
  • take longest to chance
  • new enzymes may be needed/new ways needed to regulate enzymes
108
Q

behavioural adaptations

A
  • can change relatively quickly
109
Q

examples of physical/structural adaptations

A
  • teeth shape (vampire bats)
  • camouflage (moths)
110
Q

examples of chemical adaptation

A
  • venom (black mambas)
  • accumulation of toxic alkaloids from diet (caterpillars of cinnabar moth)
111
Q

examples of behavioural adaptation

A
  • ambush strategies to catch migrating salmon (grizzly bears)
  • swim in tight groups (snappers)
112
Q

what are adaptations plants have for harvesting light?

A
  • when water/temp is suitable, plants compete for light
  • some trees grow to great heights
  • lianas climb up other trees (no trunk)
  • epiphytes grow in trunks/branches
  • stranger epiphytes climb up tree trunks, outgrowing them
  • shade-tolerant shrubs rest on forest floor
113
Q

what are obligate aerobes? examples?

A
  • organisms that require a continuous oxygen supply so only live in oxic environments
  • ex. all animals + plants
114
Q

what are obligate anaerobes? examples?

A
  • organisms that are inhibited or killed by oxygen so only live in anoxic environments
  • ex. tetanus bacteria, methanogenic archaea
115
Q

what are facultative anaerobes? examples?

A
  • organisms that use oxygen if available to live in oxic or anoxic environments
  • ex. e coli, yeast
116
Q

energy in open ecosystem

A

energy and matter enters ad exits
- ex. savannahs, grasslands

117
Q

energy in closed ecosystem

A

only energy exits/enters
- ex. aquariums, bottle gardens

118
Q

how much light is harvested by producers in sahara desert

A
  • little although high light intensity, because little number of producers
119
Q

how much light is harvested by producers in marine ecosystems

A
  • light has hard time penetrating water so not a lot
  • cloudy waters block light more
120
Q

chemosynthesis meaning

A

using chemical reactions to create carbon compounds

121
Q

what producers can obtain energy in dark caves? how?

A

archaea - gains energy from chemical reactions using methane, sulfides, other inorganic compounds as substrates

122
Q

what are archaea?

A
  • one of three domains (bacteria, eukarya, archaea)
  • prokaryotic cells
  • adapted to extreme environments
123
Q

diversity of nutrition in archaea

A

can obtain energy by -
chemotrophic: oxidation of inorganic molecules
phototrophic: absorption of light by pigments
heterotrophic: oxidation of carbon compounds obtained from other organisms

124
Q

what is the first law of thermodynamics

A

energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed

125
Q

what are laws? what are they based on? what are they used for?

A
  • generalized principles made to describe patterns observed
  • based on repeated observations
  • more obs = more supported law
  • used for making predictions
126
Q

difference b/w laws and theories

A

laws describe, while theories explain

127
Q

how do autotrophs synthesize carbon compounds

A
  • using external energy sources (light/chemical reactions)
  • use CO2 or HCO3 as carbon source to create all required carbon compounds
128
Q

what do oxidized substrates do, what are they involved in

A

release energy that drives endothermic reactions
- calvin cycle in photosynthesis, condensation rxns

129
Q

photoautotroph vs. chemoautotroph

A

uses light energy vs. uses chemical rxns (oxidation rxns) as external energy sources

130
Q

how do heterotrophs synthesize the carbon compounds they require

A
  • obtains carbon compounds from other organisms
  • digests those carbon compounds + uses product of digestion to build necessary carbon compounds
131
Q

assimilation meaning

A

process of absorbing carbon compounds into cells and making them part of the body

132
Q

what are holozoic heterotrophs

A
  • digestion occurs internally
  • includes more animals
133
Q

process of nutrition in holozoic heterotrophs

A

ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation, egestion

134
Q

consumers meaning

A

feeding on living/recently killed organisms (includes herbivores, carnivores)

135
Q

detritivores meaning

A

feeds on dead organic matter (ex. worms, millipedes)

136
Q

what are mixotrophic heterotrophs + 2 types

A

organisms that are both heterotroph and autotroph
- facultative mixotrophs vs. obligate mixotrophs

137
Q

what are facultative mixotrophs + example

A
  • organisms that can be entirely autotrophic, entirely heterotrophic or both
  • ex. euglena <- contains both chloroplasts for photosynthesis and performs endocytosis for consumption
138
Q

what are obligate mixotrophs + example

A
  • organisms that must use both autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition
  • ex. carnivorous plants <-protists that can photosynthesize but not photosynthesize all carbon compounds
139
Q

how do saprotrophs (decomposers) obtain nutrition + examples

A
  • secretes digestive enzymes onto dead organic matter -> digests externally then absorbs the products of digestion
  • ex. many types of bacteria, fungi
140
Q

what organisms need ATP? why

A
  • all organisms require cellular energy
  • to synthesize molecules
  • for active transport
  • for moving cellular structures
  • for maintaining body temp
141
Q

how is ATP produced from cell respiration

A

carbon compounds oxidized to release energy-> phosphorylates ADP into ATP

142
Q

food chain definition

A

sequence of organisms which each feed on the previous one

143
Q

where are producers/consumer located on food chain, what are arrows used for

A

1st: producers
everywhere else: consumers
- to show the flow of energy

144
Q

what are trophic levels

A

where organisms are positions in a food chain

145
Q

what is a food web

A

summarizes all possible food chains in a community

146
Q

what are energy pyramids

A
  • shows amount of energy gains per year by each trophic level
147
Q

formatting of energy pyramid

A
  • title
  • units: kJ/m^2yr (energy per unit area per year)
  • stepped shape
  • producers @ bottom
  • labelled by trophic level
  • if scale used, bars = proportional
148
Q

what is primary production

A

accumulation of carbon compounds in biomass by autotrophs
- primary producers convert light + inorganic nutrients->organic biomass

149
Q

what is gross primary production (GPP)

A

total biomass of carbon compounds made by plants in photosynthesis

150
Q

what is net primary production (NPP)

A

gross primary production – biomass lost due to cellular respiration

151
Q

what is secondary production

A

accumulation of carbon compounds in biomass by heterotrophs
- carbon compounds ingested -> converted into macromolecules
- decreases at each trophic level

152
Q

how much energy is reduced b/w trophic levels, why?

A
  • 10% energy is passed down from each trophic level
  • cell respiration: carbon compounds consumed and turn into waste product
  • incomplete consumption: not all parts of organism are eaten b/w levels -> remains consumed by saprotrophs = leaves food chain
  • incomplete digestion - not all ingested food is digested/absorbed, some is egested and leaves food chain
153
Q

heat loss to environment in autotrophs and heterotrophs

A
  • ultimately, energy in food chains converts to heat
  • all organisms convert some chem energy -> heat to maintain body temp, side-effect of cell respiration, heat generated from ATP usage
  • heat lost to environment cannot be converted back into chemical energy and recycled
154
Q

how are number of trophic levels restricted due to energy loss

A
  • less biomass available to consumers at higher trophic leves <- hard to find prey,- limits pop size
155
Q

pool meaning - carbon cycle

A

reserve of carbon

156
Q

flux meaning - carbon cycle

A

transfers from one pool to another (ex. photosynthesis, feeding, respiration)

157
Q

carbon sink vs. carbon source

A

ecosystem has net uptake of CO2 vs. ecosystem has net release of CO2

158
Q

carbon sink: natural gas and oil, when + how was it formed

A
  • when: over 550M years ago
  • how: deep buriment of partially decomposed organic matter <- high temp cause chem changes
159
Q

carbon sink: coal, when + how was it formed

A
  • when: 250-325M years ago
  • how: accumulation of wood+ other plant material from swaps<- buried under other sediments
160
Q

carbon sink: peat, when + how was it formed

A
  • when: 10,000 years ago
  • how: incomplete decomposition of dead plant matter<- due to acidic + anaerobic condition in swamps/bogs
161
Q

carbon sink: biomass when + how was it formed

A
  • when: accumulated over past thousands of years
  • how: plant biomass derived from photosynthesis with transfer along food chains giving animal biomass
162
Q

what does keeling curve do, what causes fluctuations

A

tracks the atmospheric CO2 levels
- changes in abiotic factors (temp, weather, rainfall) <- ultimately affecting carbon cycle

163
Q

relationship b/w photosynthesis and aerobic respiration, what does this mean?

A
  • positive feedback loop
  • originally O2 levels on Earth = low
  • evolution of photosynthesis-> inc O2 levels on earth
  • allowed evolution of aerobic respiration -> inc. CO2 levels
  • allowed more photosynthesis
  • means: autotrophs and heterotrophs rely on each other for O2 and CO2

sl biology (5 decks)

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