*Unit 5 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the tragedy of the commons?

A

The tragedy of the commons suggests that individuals will use shared resources in the own self-interest rather than in keeping with the common good, thereby depleting the resources.

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2
Q

How do you prevent the tragedy of the commons?

A

The tragedy of the commons can be avoided by regulating their usage, replenishing their supply, and ensuring compliance with these policies:

Regulating usage:

  • Hunting/fishing licenses
  • Land permits
  • Country quotas (pollution, fish harvest, etc.)
  • Selective cutting of trees

Replenishing supply:

  • Replant trees
  • Throw back fish full of eggs
  • Rotate which grasslands are used for grazing

Ensuring compliance:

  • Treaties
  • Laws
  • Oversight of treaties/laws:
    - Fines
    - Incentives - subsidies, debt forgiveness, etc.
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3
Q

What is “the commons”

A

“The commons” are areas used by everyone, yet owned by no one (the ocean, forests, grazing lands, etc.).

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4
Q

What is the role of forests in our ecosystems?

A

Forests…

  • serve as a habitat
  • aid in soil formation/retention
  • moderate local climate
  • serve as a food source
  • remove air/water pollutants
  • increase albedo of Earth
  • serve a role in biogeochemical cycles
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5
Q

What are the economic benefits of forests?

A

Forests provide…

  • grazing for livestock
  • agricultural land for shade-tolerant plants
  • ecotourism and aesthetic-related use
  • impact on nearby real estate values
  • a source of agricultural products
  • a source of potential medicine
  • a source of land for other uses - agriculture, mining, residences
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6
Q

What is clearcutting?

A

Clearcutting is when you cut down all the trees in a forest.

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7
Q

What are the impacts of clearcutting on terrestrial environments?

A

Impacts include…

  • loss of biodiversity
  • loss of habitat
  • loss of recreational areas for humans
  • loss of an aesthetic area
  • loss of a food source

With no trees, there’s no leaves and biomass falling to decompose to form humus - the rich layer that’s on top of the topsoil. Desertification starts to appear as topsoil is blown away, exposing subsoil. Decreased albedo means less absorption of sunlight, causing the ground to heat up, which means releasing more water vapor from the soil, and thus anything attempting to grow has less nutrients, topsoil, and water.

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8
Q

What are the impacts of clearcutting on the carbon cycle?

A

Less trees means less photosynthesis and more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. It also means that there are less carbon sinks, and therefore, more carbon dioxide in the air. Aerobic decomposition will release carbon dioxide and anaerobic decomposition releases nothing.

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9
Q

What are the impacts of clearcutting on aquatic environments?

A

Increased soil erosion means less infiltration of fresh water into groundwater sources that discharge into streams, lakes, oceans, and estuaries. In contrast, it does cause a lot of run-off. The water picks up soil, nutrients, and pollution and moves them across the ground. Oftentimes the run-off ends up in rivers.

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10
Q

What are the impacts of turbidity and soil run-off on aquatic environments?

A

Turbidity: The amount of suspended solids in water

  • Increased turbidity results in decreased primary productivity because the solids block out the sunlight, which prevents photosynthesis.
  • Increased turbidity also results in a decrease in albedo since it’s darker (due to less sunlight absorption), which heats the water up. Water holds less dissolved gases in warmer temperatures, so when heated, the dissolved oxygen levels in the water decrease, and populations begin to die out.
  • Eutrophication
  • Loss of habitat/biodiversity
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11
Q

When and what was The Green Revolution?

A

The Green Revolution (began in the 1940s but didn’t take hold till the 1960s) was a shift to new agricultural strategies and practices in order to increase food production, with both positive and negative results. It was a transition from small scale, individual-run organizations to large industrial corporations, that ran thousands of acres, and were mechanized, high productivity operations.

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12
Q

What are the downfalls of mechanization?

A
  • Increased fossil fuel use
  • Impurities released in the process of extraction
  • Reliance on machines and the fossil fuels they need to operate
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13
Q

How do large industrial corporations differ from small scale corporations?

A

Large industrial corporations are very productive and mechanized. They use artificial fertilizer, pesticides, extensive irrigation, and GMOs.

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14
Q

What are the pros and cons of monoculture?

A

Pros:

  • Easy to plant, easy to maintain, easy to harvest
  • All plants need the same types of fertilizer
  • All plants have the same pests
  • All plants have the same watering schedule

Cons:
- Only growing one plant results in loss of limited genetic variability, habitat, biodiversity, and ancestral varieties.

remember that when you decrease genetic diversity, there’s an increased chance for a catastrophic event

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15
Q

What are the pros and cons of pesticides?

A

Pros:

  • Easy to use
  • Increase yield
  • Increase profits

Cons:

  • Pesticide treadmill
  • Artificial selection of resistant pests
  • Persistence in the environment
  • Harm/kill non-target species
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16
Q

What are the pros and cons of GMOs?

A

Pros:

  • Creates crops that can grow on unusable land for agriculture
  • Can make crops herbicide resistant
  • Can make crops produce their own insecticide

Cons:

  • Semi-arid and arid lands converted to agriculture produce low-nutrient soil
  • Weeds can become herbicide resistant with excess use of herbicide (ex. Roundup-ready crops)
  • Bt crops may kill non-target species
  • Bt crops may lead to insecticide resistant pests
  • Moral/ethical/economic issues patented with genetic modification
  • Reduction in genetic diversity
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17
Q

What are the environmental and economic advantages of genetic engineering?

A

Environmental:

  • Higher yields per acre and hence less acreage needed/impacted by agriculture
  • Permits low-tillage agriculture which reduces soil erosion, energy consumption associated with farm machinery, and evaporative water loss
  • May have lower fertilizer requirements, insect resistance, drought resistance, disease resistance, salinity tolerance, frost resistance, perennial life spans, and firmer tissue

Economic:

  • Permits low/reduced-tillage agriculture resulting in reduced soil erosion, energy consumption associated with farm machinery, water loss that lowers associated costs, reduced greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural activities and associated costs (carbon sequestration), and retention of soil nutrients
  • Increased profits/reduced costs due to use of GM crops that have higher yields per acre, lower fertilizer/pesticide/herbicide requirements, insect resistance, disease resistance, healthier appearance, drought resistance, saline resistance, less worker exposure to fertilizer/pesticides/herbicides and lower associated health-care costs, increased nutritional value, pharmacological value, frost resistance - extends seasonal productivity, and firm tissue - less spoilage of crops in transit
  • Decreased health-care costs dues to worker exposure to pesticides and better-nourished people
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18
Q

What are the environmental and economic disadvantages of genetic engineering?

A

Environmental:

  • Low-tillage agriculture often depends on high dosage and frequent application of herbicides
  • GM crops with: insect resistance may impact beneficial insects, drought-resistance gene may lead to agricultural use of currently marginal, semi-arid areas, leading to increased human pressures/loss of natural landscape, salinity-tolerance gene may lead to agricultural use of currently marginal, saline soils, leading to increased human pressures/loss of natural landscape, altered genes may impact human health with altered proteins and/or subsequent toxins
  • Native plant diversity may be impacted by the spread of genes to non-engineered crops
  • Higher yields per acre often require higher inputs and often lead to greater soil depletion and erosion
  • GM crops are often engineered to have lower genetic variability than non-GM crops, thereby making GM crop monocultures more vulnerable to mass morality than non-GM crop monocultures exposed to disease or pest outbreaks or severe environmental changes

Economic:

  • Higher yields per acre often lead to greater soil depletion, requiring higher costs of mitigation
  • Low-tillage agriculture often depends on costly high dosage/frequent application of herbicides to control competitive weeds that are normally controlled by tillage
  • Decreased profits/increased costs due to use of GM crops have increased fertilizer demand to reach yield potential, require investment in a new generation of pesticides because the GM crop has promoted target insect pest resistance, increase the amount and frequency of pesticide applications to mitigate non-target pests whose virulence increases, have patented and sterile seeds, and risk consumer rejection/import restrictions that result in lower demand for GM crops
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19
Q

Describe agricultural practices that cause environmental damage.

A

Tillage - Tilling is the process of preparing to plant seeds. However, this leaves the soil bare, which allows soil erosion and run-off to occur. If nutrient-rich soil ends up in a body of water, eutrophication can happen.

Slash and burn agriculture - This is a technique used in developing countries to add nutrients to soil (only works for a couple of years. A farmer will cut down trees in a rainforest, burn them, and use the ashes to amend “enrich” the soil. However, this process is extremely unsustainable as you will eventually end up with an area with no nutrients available that can no longer grow crops (ex. The US Dust Bowl in the 1930s). Additionally, carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere as a result of the burning of the forests, which disrupts the carbon cycle.

Intensive agriculture - In intensive agriculture, a large number of a singular crop is grown for economic purposes, with limited genetic variation. As seen before, small genetic diversity results in an increased chance of a catastrophic event happening.

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20
Q

What are the pros and cons of synthetic fertilizer versus organic fertilizer?

A

Pros - Synthetic Fertilizer: Synthetic Fertilizer is easy to transport and use. It’s customizable and the exact levels of nutrient are known.
Cons - Synthetic Fertilizer: This type of fertilizer is very water soluble, so it can end up in streams and rivers, leading to eutrophication. It also does nothing to improve soil structure.

Pros - Organic Fertilizer: Organic Fertilizer can be used to structure soil and hold it in place to prevent run off.
Cons - Organic Fertilizer: The levels of nutrients within this type of fertilizer (ex. cow manure) are unknown. And, since you don’t know precisely what’s in it, it’s harder to use.

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21
Q

What is the process that allows nitrogen to be converted and used in plant growth?

A

The Haber-Bosch Process: 3H2 + N2 -> 2NH3

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22
Q

Describe the benefits and drawbacks of different methods of irrigation.

A

Flood Irrigation - In this type of irrigation, crops are planted by a body of water, and, like the name says, they are flooded. There needs to be a low wall to retain the water and the soil needs to be graded (tilted so that gravity forces the water to run down stream). It’s a very simple and inexpensive form of irrigation, but results in a lot of evaporation, which is relatively inefficient.

Furrow Irrigation - This type of irrigation is where furrows or trenches are built between crops. It’s another inexpensive form of irrigation, but is also inefficient due to evaporation. This is used for plants that have a hard time tolerating being partially underwater. Note that this method is not efficient in sandy soil as the water will seep into the sand before it reaches the end of the row.

Spray Irrigation - In spray irrigation, a nozzles are placed and then rotated in a circle above crops for watering purposes. It’s more efficient than flood and furrow irrigation, but still has a decent amount of evaporation. As it’s also more mechanized than flood or furrow irrigation, it’s also more expensive as well.

Drip Irrigation - This type of irrigation is the most expensive of all the types; however, it’s also the most effective. Pipes are placed at the roots of plants to “drip” water directly into the soil. Barely any freshwater is lost to evaporation. Note that unlike flood or furrow irrigation, in drip and spray irrigation, there cannot be much sedimentation in the water as it will clog up the nozzles.

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23
Q

What issues arise from different types of irrigation?

A

Waterlogging - Underground, plants have small air pockets around their roots for cellular respiration. However, if these crops are overwatered, the pockets are filled, the roots die, and thus the plants die. This can be resolved by letting crops dry out or by simply only using this technique for plants that prefer being partially underwater (ex. rice)

Salinization - When crops are watered, sometimes small particles of salt are left behind. When too much of this salt builds up, it can cause the area to dry out and the plants to die. This can be prevented by flushing out the salt with fresh water (although this depletes the limited fresh water supply)

Tragedy of the commons/Aquifers - Aquifers are areas of groundwater where you have a concentration of water that is recharged by infiltration from rain or from runoff. A major issue with this, however, is the tragedy of the commons. Take the Ogallala Aquifer, which runs from Nebraska to Texas, for example. Farmers keep drawing from the Aquifer faster than it can be replenished. Thus, it will eventually run out.

Saltwater Intrusion - The high pressure of freshwater in aquifers keeps the saltwater out. However, as freshwater is drawn out of the aquifer, the pressure decreases, allowing saltwater in, mixing with the freshwater, rendering the aquifer useless. The solution to this problem is to maintain the freshwater pressure in the aquifer by not depleting the limited resource.

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24
Q

What are the drawbacks of CAFOs?

A
  • CAFOs (Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations) take up a large amount of space
  • Animal waste (particularly cattle waste) releases methane emissions. Also, waste is high in nitrates and phosphates, so the effect of waste run-off in water is similar to that of soil run-off.
  • Fecal coliforms are normally benign, but those of the E.coli variation can sometimes appear in human foods if not careful
  • Antibiotics can drive artificial selection and antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and growth hormones just add outside chemicals to meat.
  • If CAFOs are in a given area for a large span of time, soil compaction and soil erosion can occur.
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25
Q

What could the reduction of meat consumption do?

A
  • Increase food calories available to humans
  • Increase efficiency of agriculture land and water use
  • Increase possibility of disease and antibiotic-resistant bacteria
  • Improve soil quality
  • Reduce greenhouse gas emissions
26
Q

What are the benefits and drawbacks of free-range meat production?

A

Pros:

  • Animals eat natural food sources
  • No preventative antibiotic use
  • Waste spread over a larger area by fewer animals

Cons:

  • Tragedy of the commons via overgrazing causes soil degradation, water pollution, and desertification
  • Large land use per animal
  • Higher cost for consumers than other methods
27
Q

Describe the causes and problems related to overfishing.

A
  • Can be a tragedy of the commons
  • Sonars can throw off a whale’s navigation abilities
  • Non-target species can suffer if they become bycatch
28
Q

Describe the potential responses or approaches to overfishing.

A
  • Catch limits based on MSY (Maximum sustainable yield)
  • Limit age/size of fish caught
  • Modify techniques to reduce bycatch
  • Laws/Treaties that protect critical species (ex. CITES or ESA)
29
Q

Describe different fishing methods.

A

Long-line - A massive line with hooks and bait at the end is dropped into the water to attract fish

Drift-net/gill net - A massive net with bait inside is used to attract schools of fish, and then is sealed at the top and bottom once the fish have entered.

Trawling - A cone shaped net is dragged along the seafloor, destroying the habitats there and catching sea life.

Sonar - A sonar is used to track the movements of schools of fish. Note that this can interfere with the navigation systems of marine mammals like whales.

30
Q

Describe natural resource extraction through mining.

A

Surface Mining:

  • Open-pit mining: This is the process of continuous digging into the earth to search for ore. This results in bare earth, a slope, and a lowered albedo.
  • Strip mining: This is the process of harvesting ore in strips.
  • Mountain-top removal: This is the process of digging out an entire mountain in search of coal. This has the same issues as open-pit mining. It results in bare earth, a slope, and a lowered albedo.

Subsurface mining:
Cyanide heap leaching: Ore is stacked outside and then a cyanide fluid is poured over it to dissolve impurities known as waste slurries.

31
Q

Describe the ecological and economic impacts of natural resource extraction through mining.

A
  • As more accessible ores are mined to depletion, mining operations are forced to access lower grade operations. Accessing these ores requires increased use of resources that can cause increased waste and pollution.
  • Mining wastes include the soil and rocks that are removed to gain access to the ore and the waste, called slag, and tailings that remain when the materials have been removed from the ore. Mining helps to provide low cost energy, and material necessary to make products. The mining of coal can destroy habitats, contaminate ground water, and release dust particles and methane.
32
Q

How can mining damage be remediated?

A

Re-establish vegetation:

  • Grade land
  • Enrich soil
  • Plant vegetation in keeping with its original habitat
  • Monitor

Remediate acid mine drainage:

  • Add a base
  • Remove tailings waste from extraction process
  • Use bioremediation
33
Q

Describe the effects of urbanization on the environment.

A

Water cycle:

  • Water diversion (dams) decreases the water readily available to the organisms in the area. In the case of dams, sedimentation also gets backed up upstream.
  • Saltwater intrusion is where saltwater seeps into aquifers as a result of freshwater removal from the aquifer.
  • Impermeable surfaces prevent the recharging of groundwater sources cities and the natural environment depend on. It also results in run off as water can’t seep into the areas. These surfaces also have a lower albedo, so they absorb more of the sun’s radiation, which increases the temperature (more vegetation = cooler temperatures).

Carbon cycle:

  • Concentrated waste - decay
  • Concentrated fossil fuel use

Urban sprawl
Heat islands

34
Q

Describe the disadvantages, advantages, and unintentional consequences for possible solutions to urbanization.

A

Advantages:

  • Mass transit lowers the amount of fossil fuels used per capita and is a really efficient use of space (subway)
  • More walking and biking, which is good for human health

Disadvantages:

35
Q

What are the causes of urban sprawl?

A

Transportation:

  • Increased use of/reliance on automobiles
  • Improved/expanded roads
  • Low gas prices promote driving
  • Telecommuting has made it possible to work remotely

Quality of live:

  • Desire for property/yard/lower density
  • Better quality suburban schools
  • Urban blight/declining infrastructure in inner cities
  • High crime rates in inner cities
  • Seek natural environments, aesthetics, cleaner air, less noise pollution, etc.

Economic:

  • Increasing wealth/affluence providing choice
  • Higher taxes in inner city
  • High land/property costs in city vs. less expensive land prices outside the city (cannot earn both)
  • Tax deductions for home mortgages interest
  • Jobs move out and employees follow
  • Home buying subsidies/reduced interest rates (eg. GI Bill)
  • Lack of/poor city-regional planning: urban centers plan in isolation; lack of cohesive plan for growth
  • Lower cost of living in suburbs
36
Q

What are the health effects of urban sprawl (positive and negative)?

A
  • Asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, airway inflammation, irritation of mucus membranes, respiratory irritation, lung irritation, aggravated heart disease from increased air pollution
  • Obesity, impaired immune response, diabetes, hypertension, high blood pressure from less exercise due to auto travel time and/or commuter diet
  • Depression, anxiety, suppressed immune response from social isolation due to spread out housing
  • Personal injuries associated with automobile crashes due to increased driving
  • Hearing loss, high blood pressure, impaired immune response from noise pollution
  • Survival rate/recovery rate hindered due to delays in emergency medical services response and fire department response times due to spread out housing
  • Reduction in disease spread in lower density areas
37
Q

What can be done to decrease urban sprawl?

A

Transportation:

  • Subsidize mass transit to encourage less automobile use
  • Build bike paths to encourage less automobile use
  • Establish moratoria on highway and new road construction
  • Develop master plans which direct new residents/jobs to busy hubs

Zoning/Design:

  • Modify zoning ordinances to encourage multi-use/mixed land uses
  • Create minimum development densities, promote compact communities
  • Vertical development
  • Establish development barriers surrounding cities and towns (Urban Growth Boundaries)
  • Preserve and protect farms/agricultural lands by designating these areas as agricultural land reserves or conservation easements
  • Create a range of housing opportunities and choices (Urban Village Strategy): dense, multifamily and single family housing near shops, cafes, and public transit
  • Foster communities that provide a sense of place: promote appreciation of unique environments, community involvement, and social context of cities
  • Promote gentrification
  • Promote reclamation of brownfields
38
Q

What is an ecological footprint?

A

A measure of how many resources a person uses, expressed in an area of land: carbon footprint, built-up land, forests, cropland and pastures, fisheries

39
Q

How can we shrink our ecological footprint?

A
  • Carbon footprint - Use less energy
  • Built up land - Build up not out
  • Forests - Reduce demands on paper and timber
  • Crop Land and Pastures - Buy local farm and raised produce and eat less meat
  • Fisheries - Buy eco-friendly fish
40
Q

What is sustainability?

A

The ability to use and maintain a resource indefinitely or for future generations

*Sustainable = Input > Output / Unsustainable = Input < Output

41
Q

What are some environmental indicators that can guide humans to sustainability?

A
  • Biological Diversity - Healthier ecosystems are resistant to disturbances
  • Food Production - Poor practices lead to soil degradation and water pollution
  • Global Surface Temperatures and CO2 Concentrations - Excessive CO2 increases global temperatures and creating climate change
  • Human Population - Exponential population growth stresses our planet
  • Resource Depletion - Will this resource be available in the future?
42
Q

How can we live sustainably?

A
  • Biological Diversity -Preserve Nature
  • Food Production - Sustainable food practices
  • Global Surface Temperatures and CO2 Concentrations - Decrease energy use
  • Human Population - Demographic Transition
  • Resource Depletion - Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
43
Q

What is sustainable yield?

A

Sustainable yield is the amount of a renewable resource that can be taken without the available supply MSY stands for Maximum Sustainable Yield

44
Q

How do you find MSY from a graph?

A

On a carrying capacity graph (population size vs. time), MSY is where the population is growing the fastest (where the graph is most vertical). This is always when the population is a 50% carrying capacity.

45
Q

How can we harvest sustainable yields?

A
  • Research and Planning - Reproductive abilities of a resource
  • Setting Quotas - Setting Limits
  • Requiring Permits - Manages harvesters
  • Focus on long term - Sustainability
  • Reforest - Replace trees that were harvested
  • Understanding to leave a resource better then when you found it
46
Q

What problems are related to urban runoff?

A

Water pollution and the inability to recharge our ground water

47
Q

How can we mitigate problems related to urban runoff?

A
  • Permeable Pavement (Allows water to infiltrate)
  • Planting Trees (Trees increase the permeability of soils)
  • Smart City Design, Building up and not out, and Public Transportation (Less pavement leads to more permeability)
48
Q

What is integrated pest management?

A

A combination of methods used to reduce and eliminate species. It includes biological, physical, and chemical controls. Crop rotation and intercropping are also methods of IPM.

Goal is to reduce the amount of chemical pesticides used to reduce the pesticide treadmill and poisoning of non-target species and humans

49
Q

What are examples of biological, physical and chemical controls for IPM?

A

Biological: Farm cat or dog, parasitic wasps, praying mantis, lady bugs, green lacewings, specific bacteria and fungi

Physical: Traps, tilling, screens, weed blocker, fences

Chemical These are typically broad spectrum and hurt both target and non-target species: Glyphosate, Atrazine DDT

50
Q

What are the benefits and drawbacks of IPM?

A

Benefits:

  • Decreases the amount of chemical pesticides sprayed on crops
  • Economic savings
  • Sustainable
  • Targeted
  • Minimizes health risk
  • Decreases pesticide resistance

Drawbacks:

  • Complex
  • Slow
  • Expensive
51
Q

What are some methods that help prevent soil erosion?

A
  • Contour Plowing: Preserves natural topography of the land and leaves soil intact
  • Windbreaks: Reduces wind erosion that may blow soil away
  • Strip cropping: Harvesting one crop at a different time will leave one crop holding the soil in place
  • Terracing: Decreases the velocity of water going downhill, reducing soil erosion.
  • No till agriculture: Leaves soil in place and does not loosen it so it can resist erosion
  • Perennial Crops: Crops roots hold soil together year-round. does not have to be replanted
52
Q

What are some practices to improve soil fertility?

A
  • Crop Rotation: May replenish soils of nutrients naturally; for example, legumes adding nitrogen to soil
  • Green Manure: Adds bulk and NPK to soil that slowly decomposes
  • Limestone: Addition of limestone adds valuable calcium to soil and increases pH making soils more alkaline
53
Q

What is rotational grazing?

A

The cycling of livestock around a particular part of their pasture as to not overgraze an area.

54
Q

What is aquaculture?

A

Aquaculture is the farming of fish, shellfish, mollusks, crustaceans, or aquatic plants by an individual or corporation with the intent to sell the farmed organisms to consumers for profit. Aquaculture can occur in both marine and freshwater environments, depending on the organisms being farmed. China is the worldwide leader in aquaculture production, for both marine and freshwater environments.

55
Q

What are the disadvantages of aquaculture?

A
  • Nitrogenous waste can pollute waterways, leading to eutrophication
  • Uneaten feed can pollute waterways, leading to water-quality issues
  • Escaped farmed organisms can interbreed or compete with wild organisms
  • Diseases and parasites from densely packed farmed populations can spread to wild populations
  • Medications to control disease in farmed organisms can pollute waterways
56
Q

What are the advantages of aquaculture?

A
  • Provides high-quality protein to a growing human population
  • Provides stable income to fisherfolk, with less risk than open-water fishing
  • Less acreage and less water use in kilo-for-kilo comparison with terrestrial agriculture means aquaculture is a more efficient means of animal protein production
  • Fewer fossil fuel inputs needed than terrestrial agriculture
57
Q

What is sustainable forestry?

A

Sustainable forestry refers to a collection of methods that attempt to mitigate the human impact of harvesting trees and using forest resources.

These methods include:

  • Selective tree cutting rather than clear cutting
  • Reforestation
  • Buying and using timber that is sustainably sourced and certified
  • Reusing wood
  • IPM and selective tree removal to reduce disease
  • Prescribed burns for forest health
58
Q

Why are forests important?

A

Food, medicine, fuel, fiber, timber, carbon sequestration, air purification, water purification, flood and erosion mitigation, maintenance of biodiversity, recreation, and aesthetic and cultural value

59
Q

How can IPM techniques help minimize the threat of infestations in an ecologically sustainable manner?

A
  • Continual monitoring of health of tree stands
  • Thinning of underbrush
  • Knowledge of common pest species
  • Understanding economic pest threshold
  • Setting pest traps/manual weeding
  • Biological control with natural predators
  • Chemical control with repellants, pesticides, and herbicides (as a last resort)
60
Q

Why are prescribed burns helpful?

A
  • Lessen the severity of naturally occurring fires by removing underbrush and debris
  • Encourage new growth of native species
  • Help manage pest species