Unit 4 - PHGY 220 Flashcards
1
Q
What does the precentral gyrus in the frontal lobe control
A
voluntary movement
2
Q
What does the primary motor cortex contain cell bodies for
A
upper motor neurons
3
Q
What happens when you want to move a muscle
A
there is a cell body that comes and then the axon goes down and crosses over to the opposite side of the body and and then synapses with a neuron that goes out. the first neuron is the upper motor neuron and the cell body for this upper motor neuron. The upper motor neuron is in the pre central gyrus
4
Q
Where is the upper motor neuron located in the
A
pre central gyrus
5
Q
What happens if you damage the precentral gyrus
A
you will not be able to move that muscle
6
Q
What part of the brain is damaged in a stroke and what happens
A
pre central gyrus
voluntary movement
7
Q
You go from the left side of the body to the opposite side of the body? Where does the sigal go and where does it cross?
A
projects control laterally and crosses in the brain stem or spinal cord
8
Q
Where are the upper motor cell bodies are
A
central gyrus
9
Q
This is the controlled body regions map
A
motor homunculus
10
Q
What is the homunculus
A
this is distorted proportions of the body the reflect the amount of cortex dedicated to each part
11
Q
Why are certain parts of the homunculus larger than others
A
aka hands are large on the homunculus because of their large areas of brain that control their precise movements.
Small motor units
12
Q
Where is the homunculus located?
A
postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe
13
Q
What is the homunculus like
A
This is like a body that is laying over the precentral gyrus and it shows you where the cell bodies are located
the more fine motor control the more space dedicated to it
14
Q
What types of muscle cells innervate
A
hip muscles; this is a large motor unit, you do not have a very good motor control vs for the tongue
15
Q
this is also known as the somatic motor association area
A
premotor cortex
16
Q
Where is the premotor cortex located
A
located anterior to the motor cortex
17
Q
What does the premotor cortex do
A
this coordinates learned skilled activities
memory for movement
18
Q
an association area is a type of
A
memory area
19
Q
the area in front of the motor cortex is the
A
the association area of the memory of movement
20
Q
If you damage the premotor cortex what happens
A
you cannot coordinate the movements, because you do not have the memory for the movement anymore
21
Q
this is the motor movement area for speech
A
broca’s area
22
Q
controls movements for speech
A
motor speech area (Broca’s)
23
Q
this regulates eye movement
A
frontal eye field
24
Q
regulates eye movement
A
frontal eye field
25
complex thought, judgement, personality, planning, deciding
prefrontal cortex
26
this part of the brain is still developing in adolescence
prefrontal cortex
27
What are the 3 parts of the premotor cortex
intellect
sensory
motor
28
intellect is in what part of the cortex
prefrontal cortex
29
The parietal lobe is from
the central sulcus posterior until you get ot the occipital lobe
30
The post central somatosensory cortex has what
this is where the general sensory information goes
31
What types of information does the postcentral gyrus receive sensory information from
```
touch
pressure
pain
temperature receptors
proprioceptors
```
32
Where does the information for the primary somatosensory cortex come from
the opposite side of the body
33
information for the primary somatosensory cortex comes from
afferent neuron
34
If you damage the primary somatosensory cortex
you will not be able to have the signal cross onto the other side of the body
35
Areas of the body sending input can be mapped as a
sensory homunculus
36
How does the sensory homunculus work
distorted proportions reflect the amount of sensory receptors that are collecting information from that region
large regions for the lips, fingers, genital regions
37
What areas have large regions
lips, fingers, genital regions
38
Where are sensory receptors close together
not in places such as the shoulder as they are more spread out throughout the body
39
Where is the somatosensory association area
this area is immediately posterior to the postcentral gyrus (in the parietal lobe)
40
What does the somatosensory association area do
integrates touch information allowing us to recognize and identify objects by feel
41
What is the memory for feeling
somatosensory association area
42
recognize what you are feeling and integrate all the touch in your fingers
somatosensory association area
43
This is found in the temporal lobe and functions in hearing
primary auditory cortex
44
This is where you recognize what you hear
auditory association cortex
45
What is the memory for hearing
auditory association cortex
46
is that a dog barking or a cat meowing
auditory association area
47
This is found in the occipital lobe
this receives visual input from the retina
primary visual cortex
48
This integrates color, form, memory to allow us to recognize things that we see
visual association cortex
49
What is the memory for vision
visual association cortex
50
memory of what you have already seen
visual association cortex
51
where is the primary gustatory cortex found
insula
52
What does the primary gustatory cortex do
receives input from the tongue about taste
53
where is the primary olfactory cortex found
temporal lobe
54
what does the primary olfactory cortex do
recieves input from the nose about smell
55
Where is Wenicke's area located
in the left hemisphere
56
What does Wernicke's area do
involved in language comprehension
57
the temporal lobe has
taste
| smell
58
When you hear something, you go where in the brain
go to the auditory cortex, then you go to the auditory association cortex, and then go to Wernicke's to understand (language comprehension)
59
What is the hearing pathway?
temporal lobe, nerve track take it Wernikes, then to Broke's to coordinate it
60
wernicke's is the
complrephension of language
61
This is involved in higher intellectual functions (concentration, decision making, planning, personality)
prefrontal cortex
62
This multi-association area helps us understand spoken and written language
Wernicke's area
63
Recieves and interprets somatic information from receptors for touch, proprioception, and pain
primary somatosensory cortex and somatosensory association area
64
processes, stores, and integrates visual information
primary visual cortex
visual association area
65
processes and interprets sounds, stores auditory memories
primary auditory cortex
auditory association area
66
provides conscious awareness of odors
primary olfactory cortex
67
Processes taste information and provides conscious awareness of taste
primary gustatory cortex
68
precentral gyrus is for
motor
69
post central gyrus is for
motor
70
What area has an assocation area for motor
frontal
71
what rea has an association area for sensory
parietal
72
occipital cortex has
an association area and visual cortex
73
temporal lobe has
auditory cortex with an association area
74
what does the temporal lobe have
auditory cortex with an association area
75
the insula is for the
taste
76
olfactory is for
smell
77
the prefrontal cortex is involved in
intellect and reasoning and understanding
78
How is the brain areas connected
through nerve tracts and these will connect areas in which some of them will connect the same hemisphere
79
What kind of tissue is the meniges
connective
80
What are the meninges made of
collagen
81
What is the jobs of the meniges
separate and support soft tissue of the brain
enclose and protect blood vessels supplying the brain
help contain and circulate cerebrospinal fluid
82
What are the parts of the cranial meninges
dura mater
arachnoid mater
pia mater
83
outer layer of the cranial meninges
dura mater
84
what is the middle layer of cranial meninges
arachnoid mater
85
what is the inner layer of the cranial meninges
pia mater
86
pia (cranial meninges) is what against the brain
tight
87
the dura mater in the cranial meninges is located
next to the bone
88
What are the layers of the dura mater
tough outer layer
89
What are the layers in the dura mater
meningeal layer (deeper layer of dura)
periosteal layer (more superficial layer of the dura)
aka all of these are the tough outer layers
90
how are the layers aligned in the dura mater
layers are usually fused but in some areas, they separate to form dural folds (septa) and with that dural venous sinuses that drain blood from the brain
91
this part of the dura mater is next to the bone
periosteal layer
92
Why is the periosteal layer hard to peel off of the bone
due to fibers
93
this is the lower layer of the dura, and goes down the fissures and separated them from the two layers
periosteal layer
94
What happens when the meningeal layer of the dura separated
creates a sinus; and this contains venus (waste), and drains it into the jugular vein. It will drain the waste into that space when you go into the meningeal layer that goes down in these fissues
95
when the meningeal layer creates and helps to eliminate venus from the sinus
double fold
96
This forms partitions between bein areas; provides support
cranial dural folds
97
This projects into longitudinal fissure between cerebral hemispheres
falx cerebri
98
What contains the superior sagittal sinus
contains the superior sagittal sinus
99
This projects into the transverse fissue between cerebrum and cerebellum
tentorium cerebelli
100
This projects between cerebellar hemispheres
falx cerebelli
101
where does the dural fold go
in the longitudinal fissures between the two hemipsheres. The fold then goes down and attaches to crista galli that sticks on the ethmoid bone (aka falx cerebri)
102
The falx cerebri does what
attaches to the crista galli to help anchor the brain, to keep it in place because of the way these two layers separate on the top here there is a superior sinus
the sagittal plane would separate right and left and call this the superior sagittal sinus
103
where waste is drained off
superior sagittal sinus
104
where is the falx cerebelli located
between the two layers of the cerebellum
105
indent in the brain skull
transverse fissue
106
The dural fold that goes into the transverse fissure is the
tentorium cerebelli
107
What are the types of cranial dural folds
falx cerebri
tentorium cerebelli
falx cerebelli
108
cranial dural folds do what
separate areas of the brain
anchor parts of the brain
109
What is the arachnoid mater
aka a middle layer
arachnoid trabeculae extend to pia mater through subsrachnoid space
110
this is the innermost layer of the arachnoid mater
pia mater
111
What is the role of pia mater
adheres to brain surface
112
is the pia mater vascular
yes
113
What is the role of the pia mater
its its own layer
innermost layer
adheres to the brain surface
114
Where is there no space in the cranial meninges
no space between the bone and the dura
115
What happens to the dura when you went through trauma
space between the brain and the bone (epidural space filled with blood)
116
Subarachnoid space contains
cerebrospinal fluid
117
What happens to the spaces in the brain when something is wrong
epidural space and subdural space
118
this is a skull fracture where bleeding occurs between the skull and the dura
epidural
119
This is a head injury where the vein bleed between the dura and arachnoid
subdural
120
below the dura
subdural
121
What types of spaces occur when something is wrong
epidural
subdural
122
the only space you should have in the brain is
subarachnoid space
123
where is subarachnoid space
between the arachnoid and the pia
124
This is acute brain damage occurring as a result of trauma
traumatic brain injury
125
this is the most common type of TBI
temporary loss of consciousness, headache, dowsiness, confusion, amnesia
may have cumulative effect on intellect, personality, mood
concussion
126
this is bruising of brain due to trauma
contusion
127
develop severe brain swelling
second impact syndrome (2nd injury before 1st resolves) esp in concussions
128
This is the inflammation of the meninges, typically caused by viral or bacterial (symptoms worse) infections
meningitis
129
what are the symptoms of the meningitis
fever
headache
vomiting
stiff neck
130
this is the inflammation of the brain, most often from viral infections
encephalitis
131
What are the symptoms of encephalitis
drowsiness, fever, headache, neck pain, and may result in death
132
these are cavities in the brain
ventricles
133
What are ventricles line with
ependymal cells
134
What do ventricles contain
cerebrospinal fluid
135
how do the brain ventricles connect with one another
with the spinal cord and central canal
136
hole between a lateral ventricle and a lateral ventricle and a third ventricle is a
ventricular foramen
137
each lateral ventricle makes
cerebrospinal fluid, but in the third you go down a long aqueduct (tube) (cerebral aqueduct) and go down to the fourth ventricle, for the fourth ventricle (this is the area between the arachnoid and their pier)
138
What is made in the third ventricularHow can fluid leave the brain
out the sides, back, or down the spinal cord
139
What are the ways to exit the brain
enter ventricular foramen.
thenn you go down to the third, and from the tird you go to the fourth via the cerebral aqueduct
then you get to the fourth, and when in the fourth you can go out
or you can go down the middle of the spinal cord in the central canal
140
this surrounds the brain and spinal cord and goes down the middle of the spinal cord in the central canal
subaraachnoid space
141
the two lateral ventricles are in the
cerebral hemispheres
142
this is also known as the interventricular foramen
two lateral ventricles (cerebral hemipsheres)
143
third ventricle has the
cerebral aqueduct and is connected by the thalamus
144
when you get ot the fourth ventricle how can you go out
down the cerebral aqueduct to the fourth and you can either go out the sides through the lateral apertures, go out the back through the median aperture, and those would take you into the subarachnoid space or you can go down through the central canal
145
This is a clear colorless liquid surrounding CNS
CSF
146
Where is the CSF made
ventricles and circulates in the subsarachnoid space
147
what are the functions in the CSF
buoyancy - reduces brain's weight by 95%
protection - provides a liquid cushion
environmental stability - transport of nutrients/wastes and protects against fluctuations
148
How is CSF made
chorioid plexus
149
his is a layer of ependymal cells and blood capillaries (within pia)
choroid plexus
150
how does the choroid plexus work
blood plasma
compared to plasma, CSF has more NA, CL, and less K, Ca, and glucose
this is filtered through capillary and modified by ependymal cells
CSF is continually formed and reabsorbed
151
in each ventricle you ave a
choroid plexus
152
What is the choroid plexus made of
pia matter
and blood capillaries and are in pia matter and append themselves
153
the pia is surrounded by
ependymal cells covering that whole capillary
154
How does the choroid plexus work
pull fluid out of the capillary and put it out of the capillary and into that space and the fluid becomes cerebrospinal fluid
155
What is in the choid plexus
you have glucose in it, you nourish the brain yet picking up waste
156
Where is CSF produced
all ventricles
157
How does CSF leave the brain
goes to and then leaves subarachnoid space via arachnoid granulations that drain into the dural venous sinuses
158
Where is the CSF made
the two lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, and the fourth ventricle
159
What does the CSF do when in the subarachnoid space
nourishing and picking up waste
160
This is a pathologic condition of excessive CSF
in a young child, head enlarged with a possible neurological damage that may be treated surgically (implant shunts that drain CSf to other body regions)
block off the subarachnoid (cerebral aqueduct) and filling the ventricles with CSF and cannot be drained
hydrocephalus
161
took its foot and wrapped around the capillary in the brain and formed a barrier so things cannot get out
astrocyte
162
This regulates which substances enter the brain's interstitial fluid
this helps prevent the neuron exposure to harmful substances (drugs wastes and abnormal solute concentrations)
toxic things cannot get out
blood brain barrier
163
What helps keep the blood brain barrier in tact
astrocytes and specialized capillaries
164
what is the one thing that could escape the blood brain barrier
alcohol
165
the motor cortex is in the
precentral gyrus in the frontal lobe
166
behind the central sulcus is the
sensory area, general sensory which is in the post central gyrus, which causes you to feel things such as pain, pressure, and temp
167
infromation for the visual cortex originates in the
retina
168
this is for taste inside the insula
gustatory
169
this is on the inside of the temporal lobe
olfactory
170
helps you do the movements so that you can speak
broca's area
171
broca's and wernicke's area is in what part of the brain
left hemisphere
172
bundles of axons
nerve tracts
173
these are composed of bundles of myelinated axons grouped into tracts
cerebral white matter tracts
174
this connects areas within the same hemisphere
association tracts
175
this connects the cortex with other areas of brain or spinal cord
projection tracts
176
this connects the right and left hemispheres
via the corpus callosum
commissural tracts
177
what are the types of tracts
association
projection
commissural
178
this is the stalk of the pituitary that extends from the hypothalamus
infundibulum
179
What is the role of the diencephalon/hypothalamus
infundibulum
this controls of the autonomic nervous system (influences heart rate, blood pressure, digestive activities, respiration)
control of the endocrine system (secretes hormones that control activities in the pituitary gland)
180
This says that each hemispheres may have a different function
cerebral hemisphere lateralization
181
What does the left hemisphere mean
reading/writing
math
typically right handed
broca/wernicke
182
this is specialized for visuospatial relationships and imagination
representational
right hemisphere
183
What are the categories that hemipsheres go into
categorical
representation
184
What is the categorical hemipshere
left
185
what is the representational hemisphere
right hemi
186
How do the two hemispheres communicate
through the corpus callosum and other commissures
187
when does lateralization occur
early childhood (5-6 years)
188
what is lateralization correlated to
handedness
189
What is the handedness argument in lateralization
in right handers, the left hemisphere is almost always categorical, speech dominant
left handed individuals may have either hemisphere be categorical
190
This is when neurons transmit action potentials too frequently and rapidly
epilepsy
191
what causes a cerebrovacular accident
reduced blood supply to part of the brain
192
what are stokes due to
blocked arterial blood vessel or hemorrage
193
what is a brief episode of a stroke
transient ischemic attack
194
clusters of cell bodies
nuclei
195
This is gray matter deep in the cerebrum
this helps regulate motor output and inhibits unwanted movements (diseases of these nuclei associated with involuntary movements)
cerebral nuclei
196
this functions in the mood, emotions
amygdala
197
nuclei are are all
clusters of cell bodies
198
What does the cerebral nulci do
helps regulate motor output and inhibits unwanted movements (diseases of these nuclei are associated with involuntary movements such as Parkinson's
199
damage to the cerebral nuclei could cause a
resting tremor: cannot inhibit unwanted movements
200
This is an enlarged head and slender tail paralleling lateral ventricle
this helps produce pattern and rhythm of walking movements
caudate nucleus
201
this is a rounded mass between the insula and diencephalon
lentiform nucleus
202
What is the lentiform nucleus composed of
putamen
diencephalon
203
what is the lentiform nucleus composed of
putamen
globus pallidus
204
this helps control movements at the subconscious level
putamen
205
What does the diencephalon include
epithalamus
thalamus
hypothalamus
206
this forms the posterior part of the rood of the diencephalon, covers their third ventricle
epithalamus
207
What are the things going on in the epithalamus
pineal gland (endocrine gland secreting)
helps regulate day-night cycles, circadian rhythm
208
what does the pineal gland secrete
melatonin
209
these are oval masses of gray matter on lateral sides of the third ventricle
thalamus
210
Where are the right and left masses connected in the thalamus
midline
211
What does the thalamus do/recieve
receives signals from all conscious senses except olfaction
this relays some signals to appropriate parts of cortex and filters out other signals distracting from the subject of attention (background noise in crowded areas)
***sorts and edits sensory information before relaying to the cortex
212
all the sensory information from skin/eyes/ears/etc goes here (sensory information)
thalamus
213
Where does sensory information go in the brain
thalamus before cortex
214
type of matter in thalamus
gray
215
what controls the autonomic nervous system
diencephalon
216
this is the stalk of the pituitary that extends from the hypothalamus
infundibulum
217
What are the roles of the hypothalamus
control of autonomic nervous system (influences heart rate, blood pressure, digestive activities, respiration) (cardiac/smooth/gland control)
control of endocrine system (secretes hormones that control activities in the pituitary gland) (does this via the pituitary gland because its controlling the pituitary gland to the brain stem)
218
What does the brainstem connect
cerebrum
diencephalon
cerebellum to the spinal cord
219
What does the brainstem have
ascending
descending nerve tracts
220
Nuclei and reflex centers in the brain stem for
10 of the 12 cranial nerves
221
What does the brain stem consist of
midbrain
pons
meduall
222
What do all three regions of the brain stem include
sensory and motor tracts controlling brain to spinal cord
223
This connects the cortex and the spinal cord, it has
brain stem
motor tracks
224
of the 12 pair of cranial nerves, how many are attached to the brain stem
10
225
how many cranial nerves are there
12
226
What are the parts of the midbrain
cerebral peduncles
substantia nigra
colliculi
227
this is the major motor pathway
axons for the upper motor neurons
cerebral peduncles
228
this releases dopamine
parkinson's disease
substantia nigra
229
What are the types of colliculi
superior
inferior
230
visual reflexes are a part of this
superior colliculi
231
auditory reflexes are a part of the
inferior colliculi
232
mounds of tissue
colliculi
233
how many colliculi are therel how many inferior vs superior
4
2 superior
2 inferior
234
colliculi are involved with
reflexes
235
deals with visual reflexes and looking at things
superior colliculi
236
the way you react to auditory input
inferior colliculi
237
this helps regulate the skeletal muscles of breathing
pons
238
What are the roles of the medulla
reflex centers
cardiac center (regulates heart output)
vasomotor center (regulates blood vessel diameter)
respiratory center(regulates breathing rate)
pyramids
olives
239
reflexively, this is what keeps the heart going
medulla
240
damage to the medulla can be
fatal
241
the axons of the upper motor neurons decussate (cross) so that each side of the cortex controls the movement on the opposite body side
pyramids
242
cross to the other side
decussation - upper motor neurons cross in the pyramids of the medulla
243
This is a hereditary diseases that affects cerebral nuclei
rapid jerky involuntary movements
intellectual deterioration
fatal within 10 to 20 years after onset
huntington's disease
244
this affects muscle movement and balance
stiff posture, slow voluntary movements, resting tremor
parkinson's disease
245
this is caused by the decreased dopamine production in the substantia nigra
parkinson's disease
246
2nd largest brain area
cerebellum
247
What are that parts of the cerebellum
outer cortex is of gray matter, inner area of white matter
not as pronounced
each hemispheres has an anterior and posterior lobe separated by primary fissure vermis
middle cerebellar peduncles
superior cerebellar penduncles
inferior cerebellar peduncles
248
What are the types of cerebellar peduncles
inferior
middle
superior
249
this is the "comparator" which compares intended movements with actual and tells the cerebral cortex to make adjustments
cerebellum
250
information about actual movements comes from the muscles/joints to cerebellum via the medulla
I intend to put my finger towards my nose, but it is going towards my ear
information comes back to the brain via medulla
cerebellum compares the intended movement with the actual movement
inferior cerebellar peduncles
251
information about intended movements comes from the cerebrum to cerebellum via the pons
info from cortex
middle cerebellar peduncles
252
cerebellum sends message to cerebral cortex via the midbrain to make adjustment pons
cerebellum to cortex saying that your hand is moving the wrong way
cortex makes the adjustments
superior cerebellar peduncles
253
types of peduncles
inferior
superior
middle
254
parts of the limbic system
amygdaloid body (basal ganglia)
hippocampus
255
this is involved in many aspects of emotion and emotional memory, especially fear
amygdaloid body
256
this is involved in storing memories and forming long term memory
hippocampus
257
emotional brain
amygdaloid
258
gray matter around brain stem
reticular formation
259
you send all sorts of information from foot, smells in the room, info to brain
this allows you to stay alert
reticular formation
260
This processes sensory information, sends signals to cortex to bring about alertness (aka response to sound of an alarm clock)
Alertness brings about awareness (of sensations, movements, thoughts) which is necessary for highest states of consciousness
reticular activating system
261
what happens when the cerebellum is not functioning correctly
intention tremor is developed (as you bring finger to nose, you start to shake)
resting tremor (basal nuclei)
262
what happens when the cerebellum is not functioning correctly
intention tremor is developed (as you bring finger to nose, you start to shake)
resting tremor (basal nuclei)
263
What are the major functions of the spinal cord and the spinal nerves
link between brain and rest of body (sensory input from body, motor commands from brain)
spinal reflexes (responses that do not involve the brain and are fast reactions to a stimulus)
264
what does the spinal cord do
it is the place where you will be linking the brain with the rest of the body
265
This is when a message goes to the spinal cord and then a message goes out to the muscles (this does not involve the brain)
spinal reflex
266
this is just a direct connection between afferent and efferent neurons
reflex
267
what goes out of the spinal cord segments
spinal nerves
268
What are the spinal segments
cervical
thoracic
lumbar
sacral
coccygeal
269
How many pairs of spinal nerves are there
31
270
what are the types of spinal enlargements
cervical
lumbar
271
innervation for the upper limbs
cervical enlargement
272
innervation for the lower limbs
lumbar enlargement
273
how many cervical segments are there
8
274
How many spinal bones are there for each category
7 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
1 sacral
1 coccygeal
275
How many nerves come out of each spinal segment
8 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
5 saccral
1 coccygeal
276
how many spinal nerves are there in the spine
31
277
Why do you have a cervical enlargemtn
because you have so much sensory input coming from your fingers/hands, so you have a large area of the spinal cord devoted to it and many muscles innovated by spinal nerves
278
how long is the spinal cord
17-18 inches
279
this is the end of the spinal cord between L1-L2 vertebra
conus medullaris
280
this is the area of the spinal nerve roots below the conus
cauda equina
281
pia mater that anchors to the coccyx
filum terminale
282
what part of the spinal cord grows the fastest
bones
283
As you grow, what happens to the spinal nerves
they are pulled on and they end up going out down below; so we see that the spinal cord does not go all the way down to the end of that spinal foramen, rather it stops between L1 and L2
284
what does the spinal cord end at
a cone shaped end (conus medullaries) which is the part of the spinal cord that ends between L1 and L2
285
As the spinal nerves are dragged down, where do they go
where the spinal nerve roots get dragged down inside the foramen below the conus (like spaghetti)
286
What are the outer layers of the spinal cord
PIA which is dragging down and covering the spinal cord (but there is a piece of it that continues on down along with all those spinal nerves) and gets attached to the coccyx and it goes down to the end (filum terminale) and this is PIA matter that is below the conus
287
These are a cable-like bundle of axons in the PNS
nere
288
what kind of wrappings do nerves have
connective tissue
289
What are the wrappings in nerves
epineurium
perineurium - fascicle
endoneurium
290
this is a bundle of axons either in the spinal cord or in the brain
nerve tract
291
when you are in the brain/spinal cord what do you call the bundle of axons
nerve tract
292
when out in the legs/arms what do you call a bundle of axons
a nerve
293
What is surrounding the axons in the end zone area
endoneurium
294
bundle of axons
fascicle
295
what covers the endoneurium of the axons
perineurium
296
This is around the outside of the axon
epineurium
297
If you were to cut the dorsal root, what would you lose
feelings
298
What is in the dorsal root ganglion
the cell bodies for the sensory neurons
299
when the dorsal and ventral roots combine, it is now a
spinal nerve
300
This is where the roots would join
spinal nerve
301
all of our spinal nerves are
mixed
302
What are the types of spinal roots
ventral root
dorsal root
dorsal root ganglion
303
this contains motor neurons in the spinal cord
ventral root
304
This contains sensory neurons in the spinal cord
dorsal root
305
this contains the sensory cell bodies in the spinal cord
dorsal root gangion
306
All 31 pairs of spinal nerves contain both what kinds of neurons and what is this then classified as
sensory and motor
mixed nerves
307
What is the spinal cord protexted by
bone
meninges
cerebrospinal fluid
308
this houses the spinal cord
vertebral column
309
Where does the spinal cord pass through
vertebral canal
310
Where does each spinal nerve exit through
intervertebral foramen
311
where do the spinal nerves exit
intervertebral foramen
312
This surrounds and protects the spinal cord
spinal cord meninges
313
What are the spinal cord meninges
dura (outermost layer)
arachnoid (middle)
pia (tight against the spinal cord)
314
This is the delicate inner layer which adheres to the spinal cord
pia mater
315
What are the parts of the pia mater in the spinal cord
denticulate ligaments
filum terminale
316
this is the lateral extensions of pia; help suspend spinal cord
denticulate ligaments
317
pia anchoring to the inferior end of the spinal cord to the coccyx
filum terminale
318
This is the web-like middle layer of the spinal cord
arachnoid mater
319
What are the parts inside of the arachnoid mater
arachnoid trabeculae
320
This is the fibrous extensions of the membrane
arachnoid trabeculae
321
This is the tough, protective outer layer of the spinal cord
dura mater
322
this helps anchor the spinal cord
denticulate ligaments
323
the pia forms the
filum terminale which attaches the conus to the coccyx
324
What are the spaces in the spinal cord
subarachnoid space
epidural space
325
this is between the arachnoid and the pia, and contains cerebrospinal fluid, CSF
subarachnoid space
326
this is the area between the dura and vertebrae. this is filled with fat and vessels
epidural space
327
this pushes the arachnoid against the dura so you do not have a space between the arachnoid and dura
subarachnoid space
328
between the dura and the bone, there is a
epidural space
329
what is the importance fo the epidursal space
potential for cancer to travel and lymphatic so that it can travel to the brain
inject things to anesthetize nerve roots
330
This is between the arachnoid and the PIA
cerebrospinal fluid
331
Why do you do a lumbar puncture
because you want the fluid to go out of the spine and you want to get CSF because if you find extra white blood cells or a certain ion concentration, then there might be something going on
332
What is the procedure for getting CSF
needle passes through skin, back muscles, dura mater, arachnoid mater into subarachnoid space
adult spinal cord ends at L1
lumbar puncture below this, just above or below L4
you go on the inside of the arachnoid and that would be the subarachnoiod space
333
What type of matter do you have on the outside of the spinal cord
white
334
what type of matter do you have on the outside of the spinal cord
gray
335
what is the gray matter in the spinal cord called
gray horns
336
the opening in the middle of the spinal cord
gray honrs
central canal
337
the outer matter of the spinal cord is
axons/ white matter tracks
338
another word for nerve tracks
funiculi
339
bundles of myelinated axons are also known as
funiculi
340
What are some of the major parts of the corss section of the spinal cord
gray horns
funiculi or nerve tracks
central canal - CSF
posterior median sulcus
anterior median fissure
341
What connects the right and left sides of the spinal cord
commissures
342
for the dorsal root ganglion, where is the bulge
in the back
343
this is made of a neurons cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons
gray horns
344
what are gray horns made of
neurons cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons
345
What are the types of gray horns
posterior horns
anterior horns
lateral horns
346
this house axons of sensory neurons and cell bodies of interneurons
posterior horns
347
this house cell bodies of somatic motor neurons
anterior horns
348
house cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons
lateral horns
349
What is the pathway of a sensory input coming in the spinal cord
sensory input come in, there is the cell body and dorsal root ganglion, and then it comes in and we will synapse with interneurons that go up
350
if you damage the posterior horn, you lose
sensory input
351
if you damage the anterior horn, you loe
motor
352
if you damage the interior gray horn, you would lose
motor
353
if you lose the posterior horn, you
lose the connection between the motor and sensory input
354
this is a group of cell bodies
nuclei
355
bundles of myelinated axons tha are going to and from the brain
nerve tracts
356
nerve tracks are in the
white matter
357
What are the types of funiculuses
posterior
lateral
anterior
358
this contains sensory tracts
posterior funiculus
359
if you damage the posterior funiculus, what happens
lose sensation
360
if you damage the lateral side of funiculus, what happens
you might not be able to move something (motor)
361
pathways are made of
two or more neurons
362
what happens to most nerve pathways
decussate: axons cross midline so brain processes information for opposite or contralateral side (uncrossed pathways work on the same or ipsilateral side of the body)
363
axons cross midline so brain processes information for opposite or contralateral side axons cross midline so brain processes information for opposite or contralateral side
decussate
364
uncrossed pathways work on the
same or ipsilateral side of the body
365
What are the types of pathways
sensory
motor
366
ascend towards the brain
sensory pathways
367
descend from the brain
motor pathways
368
what happens on the sensory pathway
hit dorsal root ganglion, then crossover, and synapse, and go up to thalamus and then go up to the post central gyrus
369
Example of a motor pathway
the upper motor neuron that is up in the precentral gyrus that is coming down and get to the brainstem to the medulla and then you will crossover and go down the spinal cord, and go down the spinal cord and then you will synapse with the upper motor neuron whose cell body is in the precentral gyrus
you are synapsing with the lower motor neuron that is actually going out to the muscle
its on the opposite of the body again
370
sensory input transmitted through the spinal cord originated from the general sense receptors
general sense receptors
371
What are the types of receptors
somatic
visceral
372
what are the types of somatic sensory recpetors
tactile
proprioceptors
373
pain
pressure
temp of skin
muscles
somatic sensory
374
detect stretch in joints, muscles, tendons
proprioceptors
375
detect changes in an organ
visceral sensory receptors
376
this includes control effectors such as skeletal muscles
motor pathways
377
How many neurons are in the motor pathways
upper motor neuron
lower motor neuron
at least 2
378
this is when the cell body is located in the brain
upper motor neuron
379
this is the cell body either in the brainstem or the spinal cord
axon extends to the muscle
lower motor neuron
380
what is the pathway of the upper motor neuron
started in the precentral gyrus, go down till in the medulla then to brain stem and crossing over (decussation in medulla) and then synapse with the lower motor neuron that goes to the muscle
381
pathway of the upper motor neuron decussates at thee
medulla
382
go from the spinal cord to the cerebellum
spinocerebellar
383
spinocerebellar is an example of
ascending sensory ; pain or pressure
384
brain to the spinal cord
corticospinal tract
descending motor track
385
you have sensory that is coming and you synapse with another neuron and then go up to the thalamus and then up to the post central gyrus
this is an example of
ascending sensory pathways, motor pathways
386
example of a motor pathway
you have a motor neuron that is in the precentral, go down and cross over, and then synapse with the lower motor neuron that is going to the muscle
387
What are the impacts of spinal cord injuries
this may leave individuals paralyzed and unable to perceive sensations
prompt use of steroids after injury (may preserve muscle function; reduce inflammation)
neural stem cells (may be used in the future to regenerate CNS axons)
388
After the intervertebral foramen, what happens with the spinal cord
it splits
389
How does the spinal cord split
dorsal/posterior ramus and ventral/anterior ramus
390
this is a small branch that innervates muscles and skin of back
dorsal/posterior ramus
this is a small branch that innervates muscles and skin of back
sensory
391
this is a large branch and at different levels, this innervates anterior and lateral trunk, upper limb, and lower limb
ventral/anterior ramus
this is a large branch and at different levels, this innervates anterior and lateral trunk, upper limb, and lower limb
motor
392
If you cut the dorsal root, what do you lose
sensory
393
if you cut the ventral route, what do you lose
lose motor
394
if you cut a spinal nerve, you lose
sensory and motor
395
what if you cut a ramus, what do you lose
if you cut the dorsal ramus (you lose both sensory and motor)
if you cut the ventral ramus you lose sensory and motor
396
ramuses have both
sensory and motor neurons
397
roots have
either sensory or motor (not both)
398
This is a segment of skin that is supplied by a single spinal cord segment and nerve
This helps physicians do what
dermatomes
determine where nerve damage is as the patient will not feel pain in the area where they prick if it is the correct area
399
this is a braid or interweaving of anterior rami of spinal nerves
nerve plexus (sensory and motor
become a nerve from two different nerve s
400
What are the four main plexuses
cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral
401
Where do the plexuses occur
bilaterally
402
What parts of the spinal cord do not form plexuses
S5-Co1
403
What are the nerve plexuses of the cervical area of the spinal cord
phrenic
1
C3,C4,c5
goes to the diaphragm and keeps it alive
404
What are the nerve plexuses of the cervical area of the spinal cord
phrenic
1
C3,C4,c5
goes to the diaphragm and keeps it alive
405
this goes to the upper limb type of plexus
brachial
406
the lumbar plexus goes to the
thigh
407
if you get chicken pox, it is a virus that can just hang out in the
dorsal root ganglion
408
what happens if chicken pox is reactivated
it can travel through the sensory axons to the dermatome; this can cause rash and blisters along the dermatome
burning and tingling pain, antiviral medication to reduce severity, vaccine to prevent or reduce disease severity
409
shingles is an
reactivation of the chickenpox
410
picking up the information about what is going on outside of your body and inside of your body
sensory receptors
411
sensory receptors respond to a
stimulus; especially to a type of stimulus
412
How do receptors convery signals to the CNS
via sensory neurons
413
this is the distribution area of the endings of a sensory neuron (smaller allows more precise stimulus localization)
receptive field
414
this is a stimulus that we are consciously aware of
sensation
415
What are the types of receptors
general
special
416
what are the types of general sense receptors
somatic
visceral
417
this is pain, pressure, temp, proprioception
this is the receptors in the skin, membranes, joints, muscles, and tendons
somatic sensory receptors
418
this is pain stretch, temperature, chemicals
visceral sensory receptors
419
these are receptors in the walls of internal organs
visceral sensory receptors
420
these are receptors in the skin, membranes, joints, muscles, and tendons
somatic sensory receptors
421
this type of receptor responds to
vision, sound, equilibrium, smell and taste
422
receptors in the sense organs of the head
special sense receptors
423
what are the types of sensory receptor classification
extreoceptors
interoceptors
proprioceptors
424
this detects stimuli from the external environment
skin and mucus membranes; special sense receptors
exteroceptors
425
this detects stimuli from the internal organs
interoceptors
426
this includes the visceral sensory receptors monitoring the internal environment
interoceptors
427
this detects body and limb movements
proprioceptors
428
this is the somatosensory receptors of the muscle, tendons, and the joints
proprioceptors
429
what are the types of sensory receptor classification
chemoreceptor
themotorreport
photoreceptor
mechanoreceptor
nocireceptor
430
this detects chemicals dissolved in teh fluid (tongue, nose)
chemoreceptors
431
this detects changes in the temperature
thermoreceptors
432
detects change in the light intensity, color, movement (eye)
photoreceptors
433
this detects the distortion of the cell membrane
| includes touch, pressure vibration, and stretch receptors
mechanoreceptors
434
this detects painful stimuli; too much of a sensory receptor
nocireceptors
435
this is the inaccurate localization of sensory signals
referred pain
436
what is referred pain from
the idea that signals travel in the same ascending tracts within the spinal cord so that the cortex is unable to determine the true source
organs detect pain from the wrong area
437
if you have a upper limb and you lose it, you still have nerve pathways
still fells like you have your hand or foot
phantom pain
438
this is detection of dissolved odorants
olfaction
439
this is a bundle of olfactory cell axons that project through ethmoid cribriform plate and enter olfactory bulbs
have to dissolve chemicals through the nose/liquid
olfactory nerves
440
this is the sense of taste; detection of tastants
gustation
441
this does not help taste but helps manipulate food
filiform papillae
442
in order to taste or smell, you have to take
chemoreceptors and dissolve them in fluid in order to taste or smell
443
palpebrae is the
eyelids
444
What are the types of palpebrae
lower or inferior
445
the slit that if between the palpebrae is the
fissure
446
this is the transparent lining of the eye and lid surfaces
conjunctiva q
447
How does the eye stay in the way that it does
goblet cells (membrane) moisten the eye does not nourish the colored portion of the eye; white of the eye is avascular ; does not , many blood vessels nourish sclera, abundant nerve endings
does not over cornea so as to not interfere with the light passage
448
pink eye is also known as
conjunctivitis
449
the weight of the eye is the
sclera
450
this is in the superior lateral orbit of the eye / produces fluid and secretes it through ducts
lacrimal gland
451
what is in tears
water
Na
antibodies
lysozyme (antibacterial enzyme)
452
what is the function of the lacrimal fluid
lubricates, cleanses and moistens the eye, oxygenates and nourished the cornea
453
the tears in the eye exit through the
ducts and then the test go through the lacrimal sac
454
the fluid from the lacrimal gland drains where
into the lacrimal puncta to the lacrimal canaliculus into the lacrimal sac
the sac then drains to the nasolacrimal duct to the nasal cavity in the inferior meatus under the inferior conchae
455
if you lose weight really fast what happens to your eyes and why
get sunken in
because you lose the fat pad, this is due to the idea that the eye almost spherical and is located in the skull's orbit, padded by orbital fat
456
What are the cavities in the eye
posterior
anterior
457
this (behind the lens) contains permanent vitreous humor
posterior cavity
458
(in front of the lens) this contains circulating aqueous humor
anterior cavity
459
What is the wall of the eye formed with
three tunics;
fibrous
vascular
retina
460
What are the parts of the fibrous tunic
sclera
cornea
461
what are the parts of the vascular tunic
iris
ciliary body
choroid
462
what are the parts of the retina
pigmented layer
neural layer
463
what separates the posterior and anterior cavity in the eye
lens
464
this is the outer layer of the eye
avascular
fibrous
465
this is the middle layer of the eye
supply the outer layer with nutrients
vascular
466
this is the inner layer of the eye
neurons
retina
467
What are the parts of the fibrous tunic of the eye
sclera
cornea
468
this is the white of the eye
sclera
469
What are the functions of the schlera
white of the eye
composed of dense irregular CT
provides eye shape
attachment site of extrinsic eye muscles
470
what are the functions of the cornea
anterior transparent "window"
avascular
refracts (bends ) light
white collagen then becomes clear
471
this is a tough outer layer composed of sclera and cornea
fibrous tunic (exterior)
472
what are the parts of the vascular tunic
choroid
ciliary body
iris
473
this is the posterior region
this has many capillaries that nourish retina
many melanocytes make melanin to absorb extraneous light
choroid
474
What are the parts of the cillary body
ciliary muscles
ciliary processes
475
this is an enlarged region of the eye
cillary body
476
this is smooth muscle connected to the lend via suspensory ligaments; altering lens shape
cillary muscles
477
this contains capillaries secreting aqueous humor
cillary processes
478
this is the colored region of the eye
iris
479
what are the functions of the iris
smooth muscle
controls the size of the pupil
480
what is the main function of the choroid
capillaries nourish the retina
make melanin to absorb light
481
what are the main functions of the iris
gives eye color
controls size of the pupil
482
what does the iris contain
smooth muscle
melanocytes
483
what does the iris divid
the anterior segment of the eye into the anterior chamber (between the cornea and iris) and posterior chamber (between the iris and the lens)
484
what are the muscles in the iris
sphincter pupillae
dilator pupillae
485
concentrically circular fibers constrict pupil with parasympathetic nervous system activity
sphincter pupillae
486
radially organized smooth muscle dilates pupil with sympathetic nervous system activity
dilator pupillae
487
nervous tunic is also knwon as the
retina
488
what are the parts of the nervous tunic
pigmented layer
| neural layer
deeper layer
489
this abosrbs stray light to prevent light scatter
pigmented layer
490
this is the photoreceptors and associated neurons
this receives light and converts it to nerve signals
neural laye
491
what is found in the retina
photoreceptors
492
what are the types of cell layers in the retina
photoreceptor
bipolar
ganglion
493
contains rods and cones
contains the pigments that react to light
photoreceptor cell layer
494
middle layer
their dendrites receives synaptic input form rods and cones
bipolar cells
495
their axons gather at the optic disc and form the optic nerve
ganglion cell layer
496
What is the area of blind spot known as and what does it have
blind spot
no photoreceptors
optic disc (no rods or cones)
where the ganglion axons exit towards the brain
497
fovea centralis has
the highest proportion of cones (hardly and rods)
this is the area of the sharpest vision
NO CONES
498
this is the physical deterioration of the macula lutea
this is the leading cause of blindness in developed countries (diabetes, hypertension)
this is the loss of visual acuity in visual field
destroyed the photoreceptors
macular degeneration
499
pigmented and inner neural layers separate
detached retina
500
what is the cause and result of detached retina
head trauma
nutrient deprivation in inner neural layer
501
What is the function of the lends
changes the shape to focus light on the retina
502
what is the lens composed of
crystalin protein
503
What is the lens enclosed by
dense fibrous elastic capsule
504
What about the lens determines how well light refracts
change the shape of the lens to focus it on the retina
bends light and slows light
505
What the lens shape determined by
cillary muscle and suspensory ligaments
506
when something is close by, what shape do you want the lengs
big round
accomodation - muscle tenses and suspensory ligaments less tends, makes lens more spherical
507
when something is far away, what sort of lens shape do you want
the muscle relaxes, suspensory ligaments are tense, lens flattened
508
As we age, what happens to the lens
loses its elasticity making it more difficult to see things up close
509
this is the small opacities within the lens
usually as a result of aging
reduced visual clarity and reduced color intensity
cataracts
510
when do cataracts need to be removed
when it interferes with normal acitivities
511
what are the types of humors
vitreous
aquous
512
What are the characteristics of vitreous humor
gelatinous
posterior cavity
permanent fluid if first produced in embryonic development
helps eye maintain shape (intra-ocular layer)
keep retina against blood
supports the retina - keeps it flush against the back of the eye
513
what are the characteristics of the aqueous humor
watery fluid
anterior cavity - in the front of the lens
continuously produced by ciliary processes
nourishes and oxygenated lens and inner cornea
constantly produced
514
How to make aqueous humor
from vessels in the ciliary body in the posterior chamber
it drains from the chamber via scleral venous sinus canal of Schlemm and then to nearby veins
515
what happens if there is a drainage failure when producing aqueous fluid
glaucoma
characterized by increased intraocular pressure (damage retina by constricting blood vessels)
causes reduced field of vision, dim vision, halos around light
push on lens and cause pressure on the nerve layer in the posterior lens
516
far sighted
hyperopia
517
near sighted
myopia
518
trouble seeing up close; eyeball too short
| how is it corrected
far sighted
corrected with convex lens
only convergent rays from distant points brought to focus
519
trouble seeing faraway objects; eyeball too long
how to fix
near sighted
only rays close to eye focus on retina
corrected via concave lens
520
this is when the cornea is not curved properly and as you focus light, you cannot focus
astigmatism
521
age related change in vision
less less able to become spherical
presbyopia
reading up-close words becomes difficult
522
How can light be bent into the eye
sharp vision requires light to be bent as they pass towards the retina
this results when the light passes through the cornea and then the lens
cornea bends light, the lens adjusts,
523
what are the neurons in the retina
photoreceptors -deepest layer (rods and cones; need to be stimulated by the light )
```
bipolar cells
ganglionic cells (go out as the optic nerve)
```
524
what do rods do
more numerous
highly sensitive activated by even dim light - see gray
the periphery of the retina contains many rods
results in sensitivity to dim light but a blurry image
see grays
525
what do cones do
less numerous
activated by high intensity light and allow color vision
have a one to one relationship with bipolar and ganglion cells
results in a sharp image but only possible in bright light
visual acuity (sharp vision)
526
what happens in color blindness
x-linked recessive condition more common in males
this is the absence of deficit of one type of cone cell
red and green most affected
527
what are the visual pathways
photoreceptors
bipolar cells
ganglion cells (which then bundle to form optic nerve)
528
this is the exit backs of the eyes and converge at the optic chiasm
medial axons cross ot the opposite side of the brain
lateral axons remain on the same side
optic nerves
medial axons cross ot the opposite side of the brain
lateral axons remain on the same side
