Unit 4 - Global governance Flashcards

Question

What is a primary commodity?

Answer 1

An unprocessed material that is extracted or harvested. Examples include food, minerals and energy resources.

Answer 2

Poverty Primary commodity prices Poor access to markets within global systems

Answer 3

- People living in extreme poverty and unable to afford basic needs migrate in search for a better quality of life - Relative poverty - while people in some countries can have an acceptable income compared with those in extreme poverty, they migrate to countries where incomes are higher, for example over 1 million Poles have migrated to the UK.

Answer 4

- Many developing countries depend on a few primary commodities for export revenues - Prices can vary up to 50% in a single year due to factors such as yield and demand - Low prices result in a lack of investment in services such as schools and healthcare - Producers may not make enough to be able to afford basic needs - Vulnerability to fluctuating prices and the lack of investments in services can encourage people to migrate

Answer 5

Overproduction - if too much is grown and the yield is high, the excess supply pushes the prices down Poor governance -can result in failure to get fair trading deals as MNCs take advantage or force down prices

Answer 6

Trade blocs, such as the EU, protect their own producers by putting import tariffs on goods imported from outside the bloc. This makes it harder for countries outside the bloc to sell their produce unless the price is reduced. High-income counties can support their own producers with subsidies, which means that other producers have to sell at lower prices to compete. The lack of income from being unable to sell or having to sell at lower prices can encourage migration.

Answer 7

A large group of people with a similar heritage or homeland who have migrated to different parts of the world. A diaspora includes both migrants and their descendants.

Answer 8

The development of diaspora communities Colonial and Commonwealth links Legislation permitting freedom and movement

Answer 9

Migrants can be attracted to areas where people from the same country of origin already live. This can be advantageous because - - help is given to support new arrivals - there is the possibility of employment within the community - there is access to service for the cultural needs of the community, for example religious buildings or shops India has the largest diaspora population with almost 20 million living abroad.

Answer 10

Migrants from former colonies are attracted to the former ruling country because - - a large diaspora community may already exist - familiarity with the culture and language make it easier to integrate - they are encouraged by the former ruling nation to fill gaps in the labour force, for example the 'windrush generation', who were encouraged after WW2 to move from the Caribbean to live and work in the UK

Answer 11

Parts of the world allow free movement of migrants between countries The EU allows free movement of labour. Large numbers have migrated from Eastern Europe to the UK, France and Germany The Mercosur Residence Agreement allows nationals of nine South American countries to live and work in other member countries

Answer 12

A country that can exert influence and power (consisting of economic and military 'hard power') at a global scale A country than can exert such an influence over its neighbours but not globally is a regional superpower.

Answer 13

- the involvement in world affairs (eg USA with international aid, military power, economic influence, spread of culture and media) - many european countries have had colonies in different continents, familiarity results in migrants from former colonies moving to the former governing country - china is now the worlds largest economy, with its FDI having an increasing global impact The perceived opportunities of a better quality of life, familiarity with the language and culture, as well as an existing migrant community makes many superpowers an attractive destination for migrants.

Answer 14

G7 is a group consisting of seven of the most powerful countries in the world. Usa Germany UK Canada France Italy Japan

Answer 15

- migrants fill labour shortages - more skilled workers, for example Indian doctors working in the NHS - many migrants are willing to work in unskilled and/or low paid jobs such as cleaning or restaurant work - MNCs are often keen to invest in areas with a diverse population and may employ highly skilled migrants, for example the London based Deutsche banks former CEO was born and raised in India

Answer 16

A city or region that provides a focal point for activities at a global scale.

Answer 17

- cities may considered as global hubs due to the presence of MNC headquarters, globally reowned universities or global financial or political institutions - many global hubs have benefitted from some form of 'top-down' support from the government - China has created planned industrial hubs, for example Shenzhen was made a special economic zone, attracting the headquaters of many Chinese high-tech companies, MNCs and financial institutions - Silicon valley in California has US government support, such as defence contracts for research and development and work for government departments -other strategies include grants and tax breaks, public private partnerships and building infrastructure to attract investment in the city.

Answer 18

Funds transferred by foreign workers to their family and friends in their home country

Answer 19

Remmitances can help reduce poverty and increasing spending in migrants country of origin, creating a positive multiplier effect and possibly reducing inequalities - India received the most in remittances in 2017, with a value of $69 billion - Remittances are worth between 2 and 3 times the amount in global aid budget - in 9 developing countries, remittances contribute over 20% of GDP

Answer 20

- skilled migrant workers can create brain drain in the source nation as they leave to work abroad, for example Indian professionals working for high tech companies in the US - flows of money, ideas and technology linked with economic migration can promote growth and stability, but also exacerbate inequality, causing conflict

Answer 21

- Labour skill shortages can be filled, which may increase productivity - Labour force willing to accept lower-paid jobs that locals do not want - Many migrants have entrepreneurial skills and establish successful new businesses, providing employment opportunties, for example a seventh of UK companies with a turnover of over $1 million a year were funded by migrants - Positive multiplier effect of migrant spending can help boost the economy

Answer 22

- spending remittances in the source nation boosts the economy, for example the money sent back to the phillipines after the global financial crisis of 2008 prevented the country going into recession - migrants and descendants may return home and establish businesses using skills learned in the host nation

Answer 23

- skilled migrants can bring new ideas and skills to companies in the host nation which can increase inequalities with source nations - the influx of migrants can increase pressure on services such as schools, creating a financial burden for areas where they settle, this may create conflicts with locals unwilling to contribute to the costs -people in the host nation may have the impression that migrants are taking jobs from locals, which may create conflict - migrants may fail to integrate into the host country, creating social conflicts

Answer 24

- the loss of a large number of the young, economically active population results in lack of investment in economic activities - the lack of spending by workers slows economic growth, increasing inequalities with host nations - economic losses result from the costs of educating and training workers who then go abroad - political changes may see migrants forced to leave host nations and return home, creating conflicts between countries

Answer 25

When 2 or more countries are mutually reliant on one another.

Answer 26

The growth of global trade and methods of production where components are manufactured and assembled in different countries has led to the growth of economic interdependency, for example a Land Rover Discovery made in the UK uses parts from the UK as well as from Germany, France, HUngary, Ireland, Czech Republic and Poland.

Answer 27

A family relying on a member finding work abroad and sending back remittances, so that the family can improve its quality of life, demonstrates an example of social interdependency.

Answer 28

Countries joining together in intergovernmental organisations such as the World Bank, United Nations (UN) and the EU allows member states to assist each other in matters such as financial issues, trade and conflict resolutions, illustrating political interdependency.

Answer 29

Environmental concerns have resulted in countries working together to find solutions, such as the 1997 Kyoto Protocol to control greenhouse emissions.

Answer 30

- Decrease in conflict - countries relying on each other may be less likely to go to war with each other - countries joined in intergovernmental organisations can work together to solve problems, for example the World Bank gave US$1.6 billion to countries hardest hit by the spread of Ebola in 2015 - in organisations such as the EU, migrant labour allows economic output to be maximised and the greater revenues are shared between all members

Answer 31

- an economic recession can result in cancellation of construction projects, which may result in unemployment for migrants labour and fewer remittances being sent home - events in the source nation can result in migrant workers returning home, creating labour shortages in the host nation, for example australians returning home for the olympics in 2000 created difficulties in finding temporary teachers to fill vacancies in parts of the UK - the process of backwash results in migrants moving from peripheral regions to hubs, which leaves labour shortages in some areas - increased resentment against migrants as people feel the migrants are taking are taking the available jobs

Answer 32

- maintain the current level of migration - reduce the level of migration - increase the level of migration - no official policy - increase the proportion of highly skilled workers - encourage the return of their citizens

Answer 33

Tier 1 - entrepreneurs, investors and exceptional talent Tier 2 - skilled workers and expected high earners Tier 3 - unskilled workers Tier 4 -students coming over to study, must be able to speak and write English Tier 5 - short term and temporary workers, such as entertainers, athletes and charity workers

Answer 34

People who have been forced to leave their home country (internally displaces persons have been forced to leave their homes but remain within their own country)

Answer 35

Geopolitical causes - war Economic causes - landgrabbing Natural distasters and climate change - drought

Answer 36

- as a result of a colonial past, many countries in Africa and the middle East have borders that have little relation to current ethnic groups, leading to conflicts over power - powerful countries each have their own agenda, supporting different sides and prolonging the conflict - people flee from war, like in Syria in 2011, which has caused 5.6 million refugees - people flee from persecution, which often occurs during, and as a result of, war

Answer 37

- landgrabbing occurs when individuals lose access to the land they previously used, threatening their livelihood - large areas of land in low income countries are acquired by MNCs, foreign governments and individuals - companies acquire land to make money from cash crops for export, such as palm oil, soy and biofuels - around 60% of Cambodias arable land has been handed to private companies, displacing many people - africa is a prime target for land grabs - 70% of land acquired by foreign investors in just 11 countries, 7 of which are in africa (eg ethiopa)

Answer 38

- natural hazards leading to disasters can cause people to flee to safety - over 20 million people in somalia, south sudan, nigeria and yemen are facing extreme drought and are moving to avoid starvation - in the future, climate change could result in 13 million people coastal dwellers being displaced as a result of rising sea levels

Answer 39

- refugees flee homes, leaving possessions, jobs, social networks and sometimes family members, often risking their lives to reach the destination - a lack of money, citizenship and the possibility of speaking the language can make integration 'in the host region difficult - many refugees are held in refugee camps where conditions are overcrowded and basic - refugees are unavailable to work and rely on aid organisations for many basic needs, children may receive no eduction - in the UK a refugee given permission to stay has 28 days to find accommodation and apply for benefits before they are evicted from asylum accommodation, many then become homeless

Answer 40

- most refugees travel the shortest distance necessary until they feel safe - this can result in countries surrounding an area where people are fleeing receiving large numbers of refugees, for example countries surrounding Syria have recieved far more refugees than EU countries further away - large numbers can put pressure on surrounding areas to provide refugee camps, humanitarian aid and support for refugees - refugees may never return home, integrating into the host country

Answer 41

- the cost of supporting a refugee can be high - over £15000 per refugee in the first year of relocation - refugees tend to assimilate slowly into the host countries, often because they have been traumatised and forced to leave. They are often less well-matched to a host country than migrants who chose to travel there - refugees are often mistaken for illegal immigrants or economic migrants. In some european countries it is thought by some people that the number is too high and this has influenced political views

Answer 42

- refugees can fill labour shortages or create jobs - former ugandan asian refugees have created an estimated 30,000 in leicester since their arrival in 1972 - refugees may have skills that can be used, saving the costs of training new workers. For example, 1200 medically qualified refugees work in the UK.

Answer 43

- the policy on refugees adopted by national governments varies greatly, resulting in a large variation in the number of refugee applications for asylum seekers being accepted -in 2016, the EU accepted 45% of all asylum applications, the figures ranged from 94% in bulgaria to 9% in hungary. The UK accepted 39% - of the 25,750 asylum applications accepted by australia in 2016, 12000 were from syria and iran - military vessels patrol australian waters and tow asylum seekers back to Indonesia - refugees reaching australia are held in an offshore processing centre on the pacific island of Nauru

Answer 44

The office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is an intergovernmental institution supported by many countries, whose role is to provide international protection and seek permanent solutions to the problems of refugees, services include; - emergency assistance, such as clean water, sanitation, healthcare, shelter, blankets and households goods - transport and assistance for refugees returning home - training and income (generating projects for refugees who settle) - cashbased interventions - cash and vouchers are given to refugees so that they can buy food and access to services

Answer 45

NGO's aim to ease refugees crises in a variety of ways, such as providing aid and support to refugees as well as advice to help governments. Many charities devote some of their work to helping refugees, examples include: - Refugee Action (provides support and advice for refugees settling into the UK) - Refugees International (a global, independent organisation that challenges governments and policy makers to improve the lives of refugees, it carries out field research and reports back to policy makers)

Answer 46

Some states are relatively powerless to prevent the movement of people or resources across their borders - a country may not have the resources to able to protect and control its borders - the borders may be long and pass through relatively remote areas that lack infrastructure and government services, making it difficult to identify the actual border - an example is the Democratic Republic of Congo, DRC, which is bordered by 9 countries. For 15 years up to 2010, militia groups entered the DRC to support ethnic groups, in fear many refugees crossed uncontrolled borders into the central African Republic. The milita groups have aslo decimated DCRs wildlife, illegally trafficking wildlife products out of the country, to south sudan and kenya

Answer 47

A city with a population of 10 million or more.

Answer 48

- poverty in rural areas is the main pushfactor encouraging people to leave in search of a better quality of life - farming can involve physical and demanding work, which many may not want to do - rural areas can lack basic services and education can be limitted - people may be displaced from the land in rural areas as a result of land grabs or fleeing from persecution

Answer 49

Mechanisation reduces the need for labour, for example the introduction of tractors to Burkina Faso eliminated the need for male labourers tilling the land.

Answer 50

- MNCs are involved in cultivating and exporting cash crops grown in developing countries. These can be large scale operations, for example Karuturi Global Ltd, the largest producer of cut roses in the world, leased 25000 ha of land in Ethiopa in 2018 to grow flowers for export - In developing agriculture, MNCs may introduce modern technology to improve productivity, thus reducing job opportunities - MNC involvement in agriculture can result in land grabs, which prevent indigenous people from accessing their land - Jobs created by MNCs can be low paid and lack security, for example Karuturi Global has previously abandoned a number of large commercial farms, leaving workers unemployed - MNCs may develop infrastructure such as roads to help distribute the cash crops. This might make it easier for migrants to travel to urban areas

Answer 51

Over 3.6 billion hectares of arid land are affected by dessertification and 10 million hectares deteriorate each year. Reduced yields and abandoned land result in increased poverty which encourages mitigation

Answer 52

A global supply chain is the world wide network an MNC relies on to produce and distribute its goods and services.

Answer 53

Global supply chains Exporting processing zones Other opportunities

Answer 54

- MNCs have moved factories and offices abroad to take advantage of lower wage costs. This processing of offshoring creates employment opportunities in countries such as China, India and those in South America and Africa - MNCs outsource production, using foreign companies to produce goods or provide services, for example apple outsourcing to China, Nike outsources footwear production to Thailand, South Korea, Vietnam and India - The growth in demand for information technology (IT) services has led to growth of outsourcing and offshoring of IT services, especially to India by companies such as HP, IBM and Microsoft. These jobs are more attractive than working in agriculture, especially for young, educated people.

Answer 55

EPZs are industrial areas especially set up by governments to attract foreign investment and create employment Companies operating in EPZs may get incentives, such as duty free imports of raw materials, flexibility in labour laws and tax concessions

Answer 56

- the development of EPZs has encouraged MNCs to invest in many developing and emerging economies in the world - EPZs have increased by over 3000 in the last 20 years, so that there are now over 4000, creating over 70 million jobs - manufacturing in many epzs in developing countries provides people with jobs for young, unmarried, poorly educated females whose employment opportunities are often limited in rural areas

Answer 57

- young, economically active and ambitious people (especially men) are most likely to migrate - elderly people who remain may be the least able to do the physical agricultural work. For example 70% of Indias population aged over 60 are rural dwellers - the most educated often leave so rural areas become less likely to be introduced to new, innovative ideas - changes in the workforce make rural areas less productive. This could make the areas more vulnerable to land grabs - migrants can send more remittances back to family members in rural areas, which supports the population

Answer 58

- countries investing in agriculture to make it a more attractive occupation, for example investment in the production of cocoa in Ghana led to the return of 2 million Ghanaians - investing in rural areas so people are less likely to leave - improving services such as healthcare and education, for example free healthcare and housing improvements reduced migration in Sri Lanka -improving infrastructure, such as water supply and sanitation, as well as transport links to aid the transport of agricultural produce to market or processing factories

Answer 59

- rapid growth of mega cities - cities increase in size which can add to problems of congestion and air pollution - a lack of suitable housing and the inability to meet demand for housing cities lead to growth of squatter settlements on the edges of urban areas and in other parts of the city not suited for housing - jobs available in epzs are often poorly paid due to relaxed labour laws - the cost of installing infrastructure in settled areas can be nine times higher than installing it before development - slum areas can still heavily support governmental economy and generate income

Answer 60

- managing rapid urban growth in developing mega-cities can involve topdown methods, where authorities plan and provide for the growing population, for example the construction of housing developments and new cities in china - bottomup models involve people working together to make their own improvements. The organisation Practical Action supports community-led schemes in squatter settlements around the world to improve water supply, waste disposal and santitation - management methods may be a combination of topdpwn and bottomup schemes. For example in Rocinha in Rio deJaneiro the authorities supported bottom up schemes by providing residents with materials for building permanent accommodation. The money saved on labour allowed topdown plans to provide services such as water, electricity, schools and health centre. The area is now home to many businesses.

Answer 61

An organisation that shares decision making and has influence over its member states, regardless of national boundaries

Answer 62

- united nations (UN) - united nations educational, scientific and cultural organisation (UNESCO) - european union (EU) - G8/7 - G20 -G77 - north atlantic treaty organization (NATO)

Answer 63

Founded in 1945, it now has 193 members. Its role includes: - maintaining peace and security and upholding international law - protecting human rights - providing humanitarian aid - promoting sustainable development The fulfilling of some of these roles will involve ocean governance

Answer 64

- part of its role is to protect the environment, including oceans - its international oceanographic commission (IOC) promotes cooperation and coordinates marine research in effectively managing ocean resources

Answer 65

A political and economic union of european states Its marine strategy framework drirective aims to protect the marine environment in Europe

Answer 66

- intergovernmental political forum made up of the USA, UK, Germany, France, Italy, Japan, Canada and Russia - the exclusion of russia in 2014 created G7 - members meet at least annually to discuss economic policies - in 2017, the g7 made the future of oceans a key priority, aiming to conserve and sustainably use the ocean resources

Answer 67

- international forum of 19 countries and the EU, it replaces the G8 as the main economic forum of wealthy nations - it has called for global ocean governance to ensure that the use of the oceans is sustainable - in 2017 it developed an action plan to reduce plastic waste and waste entering oceans

Answer 68

Founded in 1964 as a coalition of developing countries to promote economic interests. It now has 134 members Committed to supporting the UNs goal of conservation and sustainable use of oceans

Answer 69

- an intergovernmental military alliance between 29 North American and European countries - plays a role in maritime security not just in the atlantic, for example in tackling piracy in the Indian ocean

Answer 70

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) Sustainability agreements Eu marine directive

Answer 71

- this defined the rights and jurisdiction countries have over different parts of the ocean by establishing territorial sea limits - the convention came into force on 16th November 1994 and has been signed by 168 countries - some landlocked countries and USA have not signed - the creation of EEZs gave coastal countries ownership of resources in the water and ocean floor up to 200 nautical miles (370km) from the shore - where 2 countries eez overlapped a decision was made on boundaries - this led to disputes, for example norway and russia dispute around the area of Svalbard - countries also claimed eezs for overseas territories, the example the UK and Argentina are in dispute over the EEZ around the falkland island

Answer 72

Territorial waters - 0-3 miles, country has complete control over all activities Contiguous zone - 3-12 miles, country has sovereignty and legal rights, eg customs and rules governing waste disposal, but unimpeded access given to vessels from any country EEZ/EFZ - 12-200 miles, country has rights to control sea bed and water resources, but sharing allowed in some situations, all countries have rights to sail or fly over this area, european region more complex with issues regarding fishing unresolved High seas - 200+ miles, outside the sovereignty and legal rights of a single country, certain international agreements apply

Answer 73

Goal 14 of the UNs sustainable development goals is to conserve and sustainably use the oceans and marine resources. This includes - - preventing and reducing pollution - sustainably managing marine ecosystems - ending overfishing

Answer 74

This aims to achieve 'good environmental status' for the EU's marine waters by 2020 and to protect the resource base on which marine economic and social activities depend on. Each member state is required to develop strategy for its marine waters that is renewed every 6 years

Answer 75

- protecting sea lines of communication and trade, for example by upholding international law - ensuring maritime security - preventing conflict - delivering humanitarian operations and emergency relief

Answer 76

Narrow channels along widely used global sea routes. Over 66% of the worlds oil is moved by sea. Around 53% of oil travels through the seven major chokepoints.

Answer 77

- strait of Hormuz - strait of malacca - suez canal - mandeb strait - danish strait - turkish strait - panama canal

Answer 78

- increasing oil prices due to the effect on supply rate, and increasing transport costs- - leaving tankers vulnerable to terrorist attacks and theft by pirates - increasing the risk of shopping accidents and oil spills Blocking the Strait of Hormuz for 1 month would reduce the US GDP by about $15 billion per quarter

Answer 79

The suez canal reduces distance and journey times and therefore costs for ships travelling from east to Europe and America - the canal is operated and maintained by the Egyptian- owned Suez Canal Authority - in 2017, egypt collected $3.5 billion in revenue for canal tolls - its importance may diminish however, as melting artic ice may result in ships travelling north along Russias northern coast, which is a shorter and faster route. This could increase Russias strategic importance.

Answer 80

- in recent years there has been an increase in piracy, putting all trading ships at risk - while attacks are often on small boats, merchant shipping has also been attacked. Pirates may steal cargos or hold hostages or boats to ransom - piracy can also increase the risk of environmental disaster, crews of merchant ships are often locked up and the ship is left unmanned risking accidents with oil spills - the main piracy hotspots are the Indian ocean, the Strait of Malacca and the coast of Somalia

Answer 81

Boats protect themselves with razor wire and armed guards to prevent pirates boarding NATO, EU and countries such as Russia and India are using warships to patrol the Indian Ocean

Answer 82

- as an island nation, the UK has always connected with countries around the globe to trade - with the growth of the British Empire connections developed and the UK grew into the maritime superpower to protect its colonies - many connections continue with countries belonging to the Commonwealth - in the past, UK cities with a maritime heritage became culturally diverse due to trade and the arrival of immigrants, for example London, Liverpool, Bristol and Cardiff

Answer 83

- container ships carried 60% of seaborne trade, worth $12 trillion in 2017 - the quantity of goods carried has risen from 100 million tonnes in 1980 to 1.7 billion in 2016 - ships have increased in size - the increased capacity is greater than the growth in trade, resulting in the large Hanjan Shipping Company going bankrupt in 2016

Answer 84

- oil shipping accounts for 30% of global maritime trade - capacity of the tanker fleet has increased 73% since 2000 - the size of a tanker is determined by the canals and chokepoints it passes through - the amount of oil transported can very dependent on the price of oil, in 2015 oil prices were relatively low and china stockpiled oil, using some tankers for storage - china creates a significant demand for tankers because it is a major importer of oil

Answer 85

- UNCLOS allows ships the right of peaceful passage through territorial water - The IMO, a UN based agency in London, regulates the shipping industry with responsibility for the safety of life at sea and protection of the marine environment, member governments are responsible for enforcing regulations - the IMO requires oil tankers to have double hulls to prevent spillages in the event of an accident

Answer 86

To reduce oil pollution tankers are prohibited from flushing out empty tanks with sea water and pumping it into the sea. Sea water used as ballast when travelling empty must be carried in a segregated ballast tank and not in the empty oil tanks

Answer 87

- globalised crime includes marketing of illegal and counterfeit goods across continents and the smuggling of migrants and trafficking of slaves - globalisation of trade has led to deregulation, which smugglers can exploit - globalisation has increased inequalities between places, which results in higher levels of migration, and if done illegally, people can end up vulnerable to human trafficking

Answer 88

- earthquakes - tsunamis - meterological events - current abrasion - fishing and anchors - intentional cable cut

Answer 89

- can create undersea landslides and rapid downhill flows of water (turbidity currents), which damage cables - for example, on the 26th december 2006 a mag earthquake off the coast of Taiwan caused a cable break and currents caused 26 faults, which took 49 days to repair, data traffic was lost at first but then slowed due to rerouting through other cables

Answer 90

Cables can be damaged by seabed erosion and landslides created by the tsunami. - for example, the tsunami created by the Tohoku earthquake in 2011 damaged half of the cables crossing the pacific ocean, slowing down data transfer to the USA

Answer 91

Storm surges and rainfall from tropical storms can damage cables close to the shore. - for example in 2009 the typhoon Morakot caused an increase in river discharge, which carried mud into an underwater canyon, breaking 2 cables

Answer 92

6% of faults are caused by water movements scraping cables against rocks

Answer 93

Caused by trawler nets and anchors dragging on the seabed, catching cables. This accounts for 70% of faults.

Answer 94

Sabotage is rare due to difficulties accessing cables and dangers of high voltages - in march 2003, 3 men were arrested for attempting to cut a cable off the coast of egypt, which resulted in a 60% drop in internet speeds

Answer 95

- the first treaty on submarine cables was in 1884 - UNCLOS states that members must use domestic legislation to penalise cable damage by ships in their jurisdiction - members are free to lay cables in their EEZ and on the continental shelf - states must establish no fishing or anchoring zones around these cables - cable owners are allowed to use radar tracking systems to monitor ship movements and can then warn ships if they are too close to cables. These are sometimes avoided because they could give information to saboteurs

Answer 96

- sand and gravel for construction - minerals such as diamonds in south africa - gold off the alaskan coast - manganese nodules which are rocks that contain iron, nickel, copper, titanium and cobalt are of great economic and industrial importance - cobalt crusts are metallic layers on the edge of submarine volcanoes, over half being in the Pacific ocean

Answer 97

- around 1/3 of all oil and gas extracted from offshore sources - areas that are economically viable to extract, known as reserves, are found in many parts of the world - as many shallow-water reserves, such as the north sea and coastal areas around the USA are being exhausted, companies are moving to reserves in deeper waters - technological advances have resulted in the discovery of over 400 major deposits in deep-water locations, such as the Santos Basin off Brazils coast

Answer 98

A broad, relatively shallow, gently sloping section of the seabed, which is part of the continental crust.

Answer 99

- conflicts can arise where eezs overlap and countries disagree over the ownership of the islands - china has claimed island groups (including man made islands) in the south china sea - this gives china access to possible resources and control over important oil transportation routes - surrounding countries, especially the philpines, have contested these claims - in 2016, the UN declared the man made islands too small to have EEZs and found in favour of the Philipines, china declared the decision unlawful

Answer 100

- canada, norway, russia, USA and denmark all have an artic ocean coastline - the ocean contains possibly vat reserves of oil and gas, minerals and other ores - as the sea ice diminishes, it becomes easier to access these resources - the artic nations are laying down claims to the Artic - countries such as china are interested in resources, whilst MNCs are researching oil and gas reserves -with less sea ice, travel companies are wanting to send cruise ships into the area, canada wants to claim control of the Northwest passage as an important route from the Atlantic Ocean to the pacific ocean, the us disputes this claim

Answer 101

- landlocked countries - indigenous people

Answer 102

- 45 countries without a coastline gain no benefit from ocean resources - landlocked countries have the rights to access and utilise the ocean but access through other countries is difficult - goods can be delayed at border crossings, with clearance processes adding to the cost, for example goods for Uganda take 5 days longer than domestic goods to leave Tanzania's Dar Es Salaam port - difficulties in trading can lead to slower economic growth, 16 landlocked countries are among the poorest in the world

Answer 103

- fishing and seafood are an important part of the culture of coastal indigenous people in many places, including north america, africa and the artic - off the african coast, commercial fishing boats have encroached on native fishing areas, with impacts on the local population, for example in Madagascar community fishing stocks have been almost destroyed -mineral extraction by foreign companies can impact the activities of local people

Answer 104

The global scale, natural assets that are outside the jurisdiction of any nation - high seas - atmosphere - antartica - outerspace

Answer 105

Harvesting species from the wild at a rate faster than natural population can recover.

Answer 106

The concept of TOC is that common resources will be overexploited unless there is some form of regulation - despite each nation having responsibility for its own eez, there is a need for international cooperation in sustainable management as fish stocks and pollution is interlinked between eez boundaries and the high seas - the importance of sustainable development is reflected in the UN Sustainable Development Goal 14 - 'conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development' - concerns over human activity and its impact on the oceans has been responsible for demands to protect the marine environment, for example the eventual ban on whale hunting by the IWC and recent demands to control plastic pollution

Answer 107

- increasing populations leading to an increased demand for food - a global doubling in fish consumption, from about 10kg per person to 20kg in 2016, most of this originating from changing wealth and tastes in China - increase in fishing fleets, over 55% of oceans are fished industrially by over 70,000 fishing vessels. Factory fishing boats are able to stay at sea longer, processing and freezing catches - improvement in technology allow fishing boats to find and track shoals of fish that previously would have gone unnoticed - in the high sea there are limited rules regarding fishing practices. In regulated areas, the size of the fishing grounds and the lack of resources make enforcing regulations more difficult - some large scale fisheries receive government subsideries, which results in more boats than are needed to supply for the demand - one 1.5% of the oceans are protected areas and most of these are open to fishing, which can deplete fish stocks

Answer 108

- as fish stocks decreases, prices may rise out of reach of poorer members of the population - as fish prices rise, more developing countries export their fish for international trade, leaving only locally caught fish available for the population -competition from large commercial fleets can outcompete smaller fisheries, resulting in loss of livelihood and unemployment - the collapse of the Newfoundland fishery in Canada in 1992 made 40,000 unemployed - in the EU, the common fisheries policy sets quotas for how much of each type of fish them member countries can catch, in attempt to manage fish stocks. This has been blamed for unemployment and affecting the livelihood of fishermen in places for Scotland

Answer 109

- no catch zones - marine protected areas - marine conservation zones - fishing quotas

Answer 110

- form part of no take zones, which are marine areas where the removal of any resources is prohibited - there are 3 zones in the UK, Lundy, Flamborough Head and Lamlash bay, where taking fish is prohibited for reasons for nature conservation

Answer 111

Areas of the marine environment that have been reserved by law to protect part or all of the natural resources within them They can limit fishing, mining and tourism Most are found within the territorial waters where government involved can enforce them The great barrier reef of the coast of Queensland is an MPA

Answer 112

The 2009 UK marine and coastal access act allowed the creation of MCZs They are designed to protect a range of nationally important marine wildlife and habitats There are 50 MCZs in the seas around England protecting over 20,000 km of sea, including offshore Brighton in the english channel, which covers a diverse range of species living in an area of 826km

Answer 113

To reduce catches to a biologically and economically stable level authorities will introduce Total Allowable Catches (TACs) Quotas are based on scientific advice on fish stocks The EU, USA and New Zealand employ quotas

Answer 114

- terrestrial runoff - waste disposal - oil spills - pollution from the atmosphere

Answer 115

Water running from the land can pollute the oceans by carrying many contaminants - fertilisers, pesticides and particles rich in nitrogen and phosphorus from agricultural land - oil from road surfaces - waste from industrial activity - treated and untreated sewage - domestic waste water, which may contain chemicals from products used in the home and plastic microbeads used in toiletries - litter, especially in plastic products, which get blown or washed into rivers and carried to the sea

Answer 116

As well as sewage disposal, other materials are disposed at sea - rubbish is dumped from shipping, in the north sea 40% of marine litter come from shipping, creating 20,000 tonnes of waste - over 80% of all waste dumped at sea is material that has been dredged from elsewhere

Answer 117

Oil spills can result from shipping accidents and also from leaks from extraction activities - tanker accidents have reduced from an average 24.5 per year in the 1970s to 1.7 since 2010 - between 2000 and 2017 there were 53 spills from tankers, resulting in 47,000 tonnes of oil being lost - leaks can occur from seabed oil wells. In 2010 an explosion in the BP oil rig Deepwater Horizon in the Gulf Of Mexico led to a 3 month oil spill that allowed over 6000 tonnes of oil a day to escape

Answer 118

The ocean naturally absorbs carbon dioxide. As the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases due to climate change, the oceans absorb more and become more acidic.

Answer 119

Areas with such low concentrations of oxygen that they are unable to support marine life. While they can occur naturally, they are often caused or enhanced by pollution from human activities

Answer 120

Phosphorus, nitrogen and other nutrients are washed into the sea, increasing the productivity of marine ecosystems Phytoplankton, algae and seaweed grow rapidly and excessively on the surface, creating an algal bloom Algal blooms prevent light penetrating the surface to organisms below and prevent oxygen being absorbed by organisms The number and diversity of organisms (especially those on the seabed) are reduced The lack of fish below algal blooms can impact on wading birds and mammals (eg sealion) that rely on fish for food Algal blooms usually die out quickly because there is not enough oxygen to support them The dead organisms sink to the seabed and are decomposed by bacteria Decomposition uses up the almost all the oxygen, creating a dead zone where most aquatic species cannot survive

Answer 121

- the massive increase in the use of plastics globally has led to large amounts finding their way into the oceans - plastic bottles can take up to 450 years and fishing lines 600 years to break down - UV rays and ocean environment break the plastic down into microplastics - scientists have discovered that degrading plastics release toxic chemicals such as bisphenol into the ocean

Answer 122

Circulating ocean currents that can consolidate debris into certain parts of the worlds oceans known as garbage patches.

Answer 123

The north pacific has created the pacific garbage patch which is- - over 1.6 million km2 (three times the size of france) - estimated to contain 1.8 trillion pieces of plastic - largely made up of discarded or lost fishing gear (over half)

Answer 124

- animals can get entangled, restricting movement and causing starvation or injuries that become infected. Dolphins and turtles get caught up or lost in fishing nets - seabirds ingest plastic, often mistaking it for food. Plastic is found in the stomach of 80% of seabirds, with the highest concentrations around south australia, south africa and south america

Answer 125

- when oil gets on to the feathers it prevents birds from flying - it destroys the waterproofing and insulation, resulting in death from hypothermia - birds preening their feathers when trying to recover ingest oil, which can damage internal organs, leading to death

Answer 126

- the blowholes of whales and dolphins become clogged, affecting breathing - oil coats the fur of otters and seals, making them vulnerable to hypothermia - fish can poisoned by oil, especially once it has become a thin emulsion in the water

Answer 127

The exxon valdez oil spill in 1989 killed up to 500,000 seabirds, thousands of otters, hundreds of seals and 24 killer whales. Billions of salmon and herring eggs were destroyed, and fish stocks have still not recovered

Answer 128

- each coastal state can enforce its pollution measures in the marine sea of its EEZ - states are required to cooperate with global and regional efforts to combat pollution

Answer 129

- achieve and maintain 'good environmental status' of marine environment by 2020 - protect and preserve marine environments and where possible, restore marine ecosystems - prevent and reduce inputs on marine ecosystems to ensure there are no significant impacts on marine ecosystems, biodiversity and human health

Answer 130

- microbeads have been planned in toiletries - the charge for carrier bags intended to reduce waste going to landfill has reduced plastic bag usage and so decreased the chance of bags entering the ocean - in 2018, the government promised £61.4 million to deal with plastic pollution in the oceans. This included- - £25 million for research - £20 million used to reduce plastic and other pollution entering the seas from manufacturing in developing countries - £16.4 million for improving waste management to stop plastics entering water - many NGOs, such as Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace, have attempted to raise the issue of plastic pollution - in 2017 the final episode of the BBC TV series Blue Planet raised awareness in the UK of the issue, leading to demands from many individuals for something to be done

Answer 131

A non-profit foundation set up in 2013 by 18 year old Boyan Slat, aims to develop technologies to remove plastic from oceans. it aims to clear half of the Pacific garbage patch within 5 years

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Unit 4 - Global governance Flashcards

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