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Plant Biology > Unit 4 > Flashcards

Unit 4 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is taxonomy?

A

the branch of science concerned with
classification, especially of organisms; systematics.

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2
Q

What is phylogenetics?

A

the study of evolutionary relationships among species

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3
Q

What is a clade?

A

A group of related organisms on a phylogeny

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4
Q

What do shared characters suggest?

A

A common ancestor with that character

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5
Q

What can characters be based on?

A

morphological traits (e.g. seeds, backbones), DNA, protein sequences

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6
Q

How do scientists infer evolutionary relationships from character information?

A

Occam’s Razor: the simplest solution is probably the best one
*aka the concept of parsimony

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7
Q

Phylogenetic trees can be based on:

A

DNA, protein sequences, morphology

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8
Q

What is a monophyletic group?

A

Group in which all species share the
same common ancestor, and all of the descendants of that ancestor are in the group

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9
Q

What is a paraphyletic group?

A

Group in which all species share the
same common ancestor, but do not include all species descended from that common ancestor

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10
Q

In taxonomy and phylogenetics, it is ideal that…

A

All groups at all levels
should be clades (monophyletic), and this hierarchy should reflect evolutionary relationships

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11
Q

Phylograms are drawn to what scale?

A

A genetic distance scale.

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12
Q

Why use phylogenies?

A
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13
Q

Asexual reproduction is…

A

-creating an exact replication of yourself somewhere else
- Mitotic (mitosis only, never does meiois)
-Simple life cycles where ploidy stays the same, possibly with asexual reproductive structures
- Eukaryotic organisms: plants, fungi and some animals (mitosis only, no meiosis, no fertilization)

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14
Q

Sexual reproduction is…

A
  • creating offspring that is not identical
    -Meiotic
  • Complex life cycles with haploid (N) and diploid (2N) stages and specialized reproductive cells
  • Sexual life cycle: gametic e.g. animals (mitosis: 2N), sporic e.g. plants (mitosis: N & 2N)

-reducing your genes, makes haploid cell that then combines with someone else’s cell to make a new diploid cell
- if a plant has a flower, it undergoes sexual reproduction

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15
Q

What are the female parts of a flower called?

A

A pistil

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16
Q

What are the male parts of a flower called?

A

A stamen

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17
Q

What are flowers with both stamens and pistils called?

A

hermaphroditic

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18
Q

Monoecious plants have…

A

Both a stamen and pistil

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19
Q

Dioecious plants have…

A

A stamen and pistil on separate plants

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20
Q

Pollination is…

A

Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma

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21
Q

Pollination can occur…

A

-within a flower
-between flowers on the same plant
-between flowers on different plants

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22
Q

Mechanisms to avoid inbreeding include…

A
  • self incompatibility
  • Timing of pollen shedding or stigma receptivity
  • Flower shape
  • Dioecy
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23
Q

Explain self incompatibility.

A

Pollen can be blocked:
- at the stigma surface
- during growth to ovule
*Plants can recognize their own pollen based on genetic similarity

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24
Q

Most flowering plants are…

A
  • animal pollinated
  • attract multiple pollinators
  • generalists
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25
Q

What is a generalist?

A

Pollinators that visit multiple plant species.

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26
Q

What is a specialist?

A

Pollinators that visit a specific plant species.

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27
Q

What kinds of rewards do pollinators seek?

A
  • Nectar (sugar/amino acids)
  • Oils (provide fat)
  • Pollen (high protein)
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28
Q

Pollinators are attracted by…

A

*Scent
- Sweet odor
- Pheromone mimics
- Dung/rotting meat odor
*Floral pigments

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29
Q

What does UV coloration encourage?

A

directs insects to nectar (and pollen)

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30
Q

What do landing pads encourage?

A

walk around, pollinate

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31
Q

What does restricted access prevent?

A

nectar robbing, ensures pollination

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32
Q

Define pollination syndrome.

A

Floral traits associated with particular pollinators. Can sometimes be used to predict pollinator from plant.

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33
Q

Pollination syndrome for bees and bee pollinated flowers:

A

-Good color vision (into UV); red blind
- Flowers typically: blue, yellow or white
- May have visible nectar guides (spots)
- Often irregular (bilateral)
- Good sense of smell
- Often fragrant
- Open during daytime
- Nectar: small volumes, concentrated

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34
Q

Birds and bird-pollinated flowers:

A
  • Good color vision; especially red
  • Flowers often red
  • Poor sense of smell
  • Little or no scent
  • Open during daytime
  • Nectar: large volumes, dilute
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35
Q

Nectar-feeding flies:

A
  • Prefer light colored, open flowers
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36
Q

Carrion Flies:

A
  • Prefer flowers that look and smell
    like rotting flesh
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37
Q

Butterflies:

A
  • Good color vision
  • Flowers: blue, purple, deep pink,
    orange red
  • Good sense of smell
  • Often fragrant
    -** Feed with tubular proboscis**
  • Nectar: often in narrow deep tubes
  • Require landing platform
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38
Q

Bats:

A

- Color blind
- Flowers: light or dingy colors
- Good sense of smell
- Strong odors
- Active at night
- Open at night
- Plentiful nectar and pollen
- Open shape, easy access

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39
Q

Moths:

A
  • Dull or white flowers
  • Good sense of smell
  • Active at night
  • Long proboscis, deep tubes
  • Less nectar, landing platform
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40
Q

Why disperse seeds?

A
  • To reduce competition
  • To reduce inbreeding
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41
Q

Some seed dispersal methods include…

A
  • Water-dispersed (e.g. coconuts)
  • Wind dispersed (non-targeted)
  • Animal dispersed
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42
Q

Animal dispersal is beneficial because it is…

A
  • predictable and targeted
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43
Q

Mechanisms of animal dispersal include…

A
  • Feed on fruits, seeds pass
  • Seed hoarding (e.g. squirrels)
  • Stick to fur (or socks!)
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44
Q

Seed dispersal cues include…

A
  • Color change
  • Odor
    *These methods encourage the dispersal of mature seeds
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45
Q

Define Ecology

A

The study of the distribution and abundance of organisms and the interactions that determine distribution and abundance

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46
Q

Define population

A

All the individuals of a given species
present in an area

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47
Q

Define community

A

All the populations present in a
given area

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48
Q

Define ecosystem

A

the community together with the
abiotic environment in which it is set

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49
Q

Define biome

A

broad regions of similar ecosystems
defined by climatic conditions

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50
Q

Carrying capacity:

A
  • Max # of organisms: that an environment can support
  • Population growth flattens: when resources become limiting
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51
Q

What happens when you exhaust resources?

A

population crashes

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52
Q

What happens when nutrients are added?

A

carrying capacity fluctuates

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53
Q

What happens when there’s a richer medium?

A

carrying capacity increases

54
Q

In a closed system…

A

there are fixed limits

55
Q

Formula for population growth…

A

r (population growth rate) = b (population birth rate) - d (population death rate)

56
Q

If the population value is r > 0

A

Positive, the population is growing

57
Q

If the population value is r = 0

A

No change

58
Q

If the population value r < 0

A

Negative, the population is decreasing

59
Q

Define habitat…

A

where an organism lives

60
Q

Define ecological niche…

A

a summary of an organism’s requirements in order to practice its way of life (includes ecological role of a species in a community (interaction with other species))

61
Q

The most common limiting factor in plants is…

A

temperature and moisture

62
Q

Define mutualism

A

both organisms benefit (eg plants and pollinators)

63
Q

Define predation/parasitism

A

-one organism benefits, the other is hurt
-eg.) Herbivory: Consumption of
plants by animals

64
Q

Define commensalism

A

positive effect on one species, but …
no effect on the other species

65
Q

Define competition

A

Both organisms cost
-Results in a reduction of reproduction or survival

66
Q

Examples of mutualism

A

-Pollination
-Seed dispersal
-Herbivory
-Defense

67
Q

Describe plant and microbe mutualism

A

-Fungi and bacteria in soil provide nutrients to plants
-Plants need nitrogen, phosphorus:
Proteins, DNA, ATP
-example: Mycorrhizae (root fungi)
- = fungi that live on or in the
roots of plants
- carbon source for fungus is:
sugars from plant
- expand the root system:
provide nutrients to plant

68
Q

Plant responses to competition…

A

-Rapid growth: taller, deeper roots, etc. (= resource pre-emption)
-Tolerance of: low resource availability
-Allelopathy: produce chemicals à affect competitors
-Rhododendron understory:
lack of herbaceous plants
-Adaptations to prevent:
overlapping needs

69
Q

Describe Gauze’s Law (competitive exclusion principle)

A

Two species competing for the exact same resources cannot stably coexist

70
Q

What are some plant responses to herbivory

A

-Physical defenses: thorns, spines, etc.
-Chemical defenses: e.g., tannins, alkaloids
-Also: insect mutualists, rapid growth, meristem position

71
Q

What are some characteristics of plants as predators?

A
  • Plant carnivory has evolved many times independently
  • Traps are usually modified leaves
  • Examples: passive pitcher plants, active fly traps
72
Q

parasitism in plants…

A

-Parasites: live in or on members of another species (hosts), absorb nutrients/energy from hosts
- Parasites of plants (e.g. viruses, fungi)
- Plant as parasites

73
Q

Define hemiparasites

A

green (photosynthetic) plants… absorb water and nutrient from hosts

74
Q

Define holoparasites

A

non-green plants…absorb energy and nutrients from host.

75
Q

Define epiphytic plants…

A

plants that grow… on other plants

76
Q

Epiphytic plants get moisture and nutrients from…

A

air, rain, debris

77
Q

Are epiphytic plants parasitic?

A

No

78
Q

Define community ecology…

A

The study of interacting populations of the species living within a particular area through time

79
Q

Define succession…

A

The process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time.

80
Q

Define primary succession…

A

on non-vegetated land (on bare
rock) e.g. after glacial retreat, volcanic eruption

81
Q

Define secondary succession…

A

on previously vegetated land (soil
present) e.g. abandoned farmland, after deforestation

81
Q

Describe the process of primary succession when glaciers retreat.

A

1.) Retreating glaciers expose bare rock
2.) Pioneer species like lichen
and moss create the first soil
3.) Pioneer plants
*Climax community: stable,
(self perpetuating) stage

82
Q

Describe the process of secondary succession in the tropics.

A

1.) Pioneer species colonize first
Good dispersers, rapid growth
*Climax community: stable,
(self perpetuating) stage
*Shade tolerant, slow growing

83
Q

Define food chain…

A

description of the flow of energy through an ecosystem

84
Q

Define trophic level…

A

species grouped on the basis of what they eat

85
Q

Larger numbers of organisms are usually at ________ trophic levels.

A

lower

86
Q

There is more _______ at lower trophic levels.

A

biomass
*rodents need much more than their weight in acorns for sustenance. Owls need more than their weight in rodents

87
Q

What is the efficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels?

A

~10%

88
Q

A food web is…

A

a more complex and complete
representation of: trophic (feeding) structure

89
Q

Define a keystone species…

A

Species that have far-reaching effects on ecosystems

90
Q

Why do trophic cascades happen?

A

A keystone species is lost.

91
Q

How does energy cycle through ecosystems

A

Energy enters as light and leaves as heat

92
Q

Describe the nitrogen cycle…

A
  • most abundant element in atmosphere
  • not in a form that plants or animals can use
93
Q

Human effects on the nitrogen cycle include…

A
  • Fertilizers
  • Nitrogen pollution
94
Q

How does matter cycle through ecosystems?

A

through biotic and abiotic pools

95
Q

What predicts how hot past global temperatures were?

A

Carbon dioxide (CO2) levels

96
Q

Define species richness…

A

the number of species in a given area

97
Q

Define species evenness…

A

the proportions of species in an area

98
Q

Define species diversity…

A

measure that combines richness and evenness

99
Q

Ecosystem services require high levels of biodiversity for sustaining stable communities. Some of these services include…

A
  • Soil formation and enrichment
  • Water purification
  • Oxygen production
  • Carbon sequestration
  • Temperature control
  • Pollination (both crops and wild)
100
Q

Reasons to care about biodiversity…

A
  • need genetic diversity to respond to future change
  • natural products (medicines, fertilizers, pesticides)
101
Q

Species diversity is needed for…

A

ecosystem resilience

102
Q

Functional groups are…

A
  • Set of species that fills a particular role e.g. photosynthesis or nitrogen fixation
  • The more species present, the more roles are filled
103
Q

What is a biome?

A

broad regions of similar ecosystems defined by climatic conditions. Ecosystems in the same biome may contain different communities of species.

104
Q

Climate determines locations of _____.

A

biomes

105
Q

Why does the equator receive more solar energy?

A
  • angle of sun’s rays
  • distance light travels through
    atmosphere
106
Q

What causes seasons?

A

the tilt of the earths axis
*the sun’s solar radiation strikes the Earth at different angles depending on latitude and season

107
Q

______ affect levels of precipitation.

A

Air currents

108
Q

Plant and animal diversity tends to be _______ at low latitudes (near the equator)

A

higher

109
Q

Diversity also tends to be higher with more __________.

A

precipitation

110
Q

Where did farming arise?

A

Farming arose independently in several centers around the world. There are at least 10 different centers of origin for today’s most economically important crops.

111
Q

Farming began around _______ years ago.

A

10,000

112
Q

_____________ is an evolutionary process resulting in crop plants with useful traits that differ from the wild form

A

Domestication

113
Q

Domestication is driven by ______ _______ for desirable traits

A

artificial selection
*High fitness = agriculturally beneficial traits

114
Q

Define domestication syndrome…

A

Set of traits that most domesticated animals share
eg.) Most domesticated animals: a reduced fear of people, not biting, floppy ears, interesting coat colors, size

115
Q

Some useful crop traits include…

A
  • Large seeds, high nutrient content, dry storage
  • Loss of: seed dispersal, self incompatibility, seed dormancy
  • Pest or disease resistance
  • Stress resistance e.g. salt or drought tolerance
116
Q

__________ plants have larger cells and tend to be larger plants.

A

Polyploid

117
Q

The _______ ____________ (1930’s to 1960’s) was an Increased agricultural production worldwide.

A

Green Revolution

118
Q

The Green Revolution was a result of…

A
  • Plant breeding: improved crop yields, easy harvesting
  • Development of inorganic fertilizers, fungicides, herbicides and pesticide
119
Q

One example of monoculture and disease in the US is…

A

In the 1970s, 90% of the corn crop in the USA was hybrid corn. Southern corn leaf blight destroyed 15% of US corn.

120
Q

Increased agricultural production worldwide from the 1970’s to now is a result of…

A
  • Plant breeding: improved crop yields e.g. disease
    resistant dwarf wheat and rice in tropical countries
  • Development of inorganic fertilizers, fungicides and
    pesticide
121
Q

Now, crops are crossed with wild relatives to…

A

Increase disease resistance & yields in different climates

122
Q

Not all traits can be easily achieved via breeding- Why?

A

There may not be heritable (genetic) variation for a trait

123
Q

Some examples of genetically modified crop traits include…

A
  • Herbicide resistance: RoundUp Ready
  • Insect pest resistance: Bt corn
  • Virus resistance: Papaya
  • Nutrient enrichment: Golden Rice
  • Fungus resistance: American chestnut
124
Q

Most common early types of genetically modified crops are…

A
  • HT = herbicide tolerant
  • Bt = insect resistant
125
Q

What does herbicide resistance help with?

A

reduces ploughing, reduces soil erosion, reduces loss of beneficial microbes

126
Q

What does insect pest resistance help with?

A

Bt toxin affects only moths and beetles. No sprays: affects only insects that eat the crop

127
Q

Environmental risks of herbicide resistance and insect pest resistance include…

A

Herbicide resistance:
- Spread of transgene: natural crosses spread herbicide resistance to wild relatives or neighbor’s crops
- Herbicide resistance evolves in weeds

Insect pest (Bt) resistance:
- Effects on other insects
- Spread of transgene: natural crosses spread pest
resistance to weeds or neighbor’s crops

Other risks:
Food safety (e.g. new allergens) (no evidence),
Broader socio-economic issues: e.g. food price & availability

128
Q

Define transgene…

A

gene from the DNA of one organism & introduced
into the DNA of another organism by artificial techniques

129
Q

What is the problem with transgenes.

A
  • GM crops may hybridize with wild relatives, leading to the escape of transgenes into the wild
  • Many crops flower at the same time as their wild relatives
  • Transgene escape is almost inevitable
130
Q

For genes to escape you need four things…

A
  1. Geographic overlap
  2. Flowering time overlap
  3. Pollination
  4. Hybrid viability or fertility
131
Q

What are some characteristics of sustainable agriculture?

A

Utilize farm landscapes that resemble natural ecosystems:
- Maintain mutualistic microbes and reduce soil erosion:
decrease ploughing, use legumes as cover crops
- Use recycled fertilizers (compost, manure)
- ‘Intercropping’ (different crops in different rows)
- Soy or alfalfa to provide nitrogen for corn or cotton
- Onions mask scent of carrots, keep pests away
- Crop and landscape diversity for better resilience to
extremes in weather, pests and market conditions
– Precision agriculture (e.g. GPS data and drones) for
pest control, yield increase

Plant Biology (3 decks)

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