Unit 3a - Elements, Water And Organic Chemistry Flashcards
Until quite recently what was the two obvious ways to categorise elements?
Their physical and chemical properties and their relative atomic mass
before 1800 what could scientists go on to classify elements?
In order of atomic mass
Before the 20th century why did elements not have an atomic number?
Scientists had no idea of atomic structure or of protons and electrons so there was no such thing as an atomic number
Where did the name periodic table come from?
A periodic pattern was noticed in the properties of the ordered elements
In 1864 who tried arranging the periodic table more usefully?
Newlands
What year did newland try to arrange the elements more usefully?
1864
What did newlands notice about the elements?
That every eighth element had similar properties
What was newlands sets of eight called?
Newlands octaves
Why did newlands pattern break down on the third row?
Because transition metals like titanium (Ti) and Iron (Fe) messed it up
Why was newlands work ignored?
Because he left no gaps (but he was getting pretty close)
When newland presented his ideas to the chemical society in 1865 why was his work critiqued? (3)
- His groups contained elements that didn’t have similar properties e.g carbon and titanium
- He mixed up metals and non-metals e.g oxygen and iron
- He didn’t leave any gaps for undiscovered elements
How did newlands set out his periodic table?
He listed some of the known elements in rows of seven and every column should of had elements with similar properties. Because if it was all put out in list form every eighth element would have similar properties.
When did dmitri mendeleev arrange the elements into a table of elements?
1869
What was mendeleevs idea for how to set out the periodic table?
He put the elements in order of atomic mass but left gals in order to keep elements with similar properties in the same vertical columns (groups). These gaps helped predict the properties of undiscovered elements and when they were found and they fit the pattern it was good for mendeleev. He left very big gaps in the first two rows before the transition metals come in on the third row.
Why did the big break through for the periodic table happen?
Because the structure of an atom was understood better
Why didn’t all scientists think the periodic table was important?
They thought it was a bit of fun because there wasn’t much evidence to suggest the elements really fit together and ideas don’t get the scientific approval without evidence.
After Mendeleev released his work what convincing evidence did they find in favour of the periodic table?
Newly discovered elements fitted into the gaps he left
When did scientists discover protons, neutrons and electrons?
The late 19th century
Why do scientists now accept the periodic table as being a very important and useful summary of the structure of atoms?
Because it matches up very well to what’s been discovered about the structure of atoms.
What is the modern periodic table based on?
Electronic structure
What happened to the periodic tables arrangement when electrons, protons and neutrons were discovered?
The elements were arranged in order of atomic number instead of atomic mass
In the modern periodic table what we’re all the elements put into?
Groups
In the modern periodic table how can you predict the elements chemical properties?
(Because the periodic table is arranged by electronic structure) you can use the electron arrangement to predict their chemical properties
How are electrons in an atom set out?
In shells which each correspond to an energy level
(Apart from transition metals) what do elements in the same group have in common?
The same number of electrons in their highest occupied energy level (outer shell)
What are the group numbers in the modern periodic table equal to?
The number of electrons in the outer shell e.g group six have six electrons in their outer shell.
What does the positive charge of the nucleus do?
Attracts electrons and holds them in place
If an electron is far from the nucleus ,compared to if it was closer, what happens to the attraction?
There is less attraction
What happens to the attraction when there is a lot of inner electrons? And why?
It is even less because the inner electrons get in the way of the nucleur charge and this reduces the attraction - this is known as shielding
What does the combination of increased distance from the nucleus and increased shielding mean? (2)
That an electron in a higher energy level is more easily lost because there’s less attraction from the nucleus holding it in place this is why group 1 metals get more reactive as you go down the group.
It also means that a higher energy level is less likely to gain an electron as there’s less attraction from the nucleus pulling electrons into the atom that’s why group 7 elements get less reactive going down the group.
What are alkali metals?
Silvery solids that have to be stored in oil and handled with forceps as they burn the skin
As you go down in group one what do the alkali metals do? (2)
Become more reactive because the outer electron is more easily lost as its further from the nucleus and have lower melting and boiling points
What kind of density do the alkali metals have?
Low. The first three in the group are less dense than water.
What are the alkali metals? (6 - know first three v well)
Lithium* Sodium* Potassium* Rubidium Caesium Francium
Why are the alkali metals a all very reactive with similar properties?
They all have one outer electron
When an alkali metal is reacted with a non metal what does it form?
An Ionic compound
What must the alkali metal react with to form an ionic compound?
A non-metal
Why do alkali metals and non-metals form ionic compounds?
Because the alkali metals are eager to lose their outer electron to form a 1+ ion. They never form covalent bonding as they just want to lose the outer electron so they wouldn’t share. So they always form ionic bonds.
What do ionic compounds produce?
White compounds that dissolve in water to form colourless solutions
When alkali metals are reacted with water what does it produce?
Hydrogen gas
In general, What happens when lithium, sodium or potassium are put in water?
They react vigorously, they float and move around the surface fizzing furiously and they produce hydrogen. They form hydroxides that dissolve in water to give alkaline solutions
When potassium reacts with water what happens?
It moves around the surface producing hydrogen and it gets so hot it ignites the hydrogen
How would you show that hydrogen is produced when reacting an alkali metal in water?
A lighted splint will indicate hydrogen by producing a squeaky pop as the hydrogen ignites
When the alkali metal has reacted fully with the water what colour would the universal indicator change to?
Purple as the mixture has now become alkaline
What is the equation to react sodium (Na) in water?
2Na + 2H 0 —-> 2NaOH + H
2 2
This is the same format for all the alkali metals
What is the name for group 7 of the periodic table?
The halogens
As you go down group 7 what are the properties of the halogens?
They are less reactive because it’s harder to gain an extra electron, because the outer shells further from the nucleus. Has a higher melting and boiling point
What are the halogens?
Non-metal molecules with coloured vapours
What are the properties of fluorine?
Very reactive poisonous yellow gas
What are the properties of chlorine?
Fairly reactive poisonous dense green gas
What are the properties of bromine?
A dense poisonous red-brown volatile liquid
What are the properties of iodine?
A dark grey crystalline solid or a purple vapour
What is a molecule?
A pair of atoms
List the halogens
Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine Astatine
What kind of bond do the halogens form with metals?
Ionic bond
What do the halogens form in ionic bonding?
1- ions called halides e.g Na+Cl-
Explain ionic Bonding
When a metal reacts with a non metal e.g is because the sodium (metal) gave up an electron so it could have a full outer shell therefore meaning it has more protons so it’s a positive charge so it’s a plus and the chlorine (non metal) gained an electron to have a full outer shell so it has more electrons making it a negative charge so it’s a minus
What happens if a more reactive halogen is reacted with a less reactive halogen from an aqueous solution of its salt?
The more reactive one with displace the less reactive one e.g chlorine can displace bromine and iodine from an aqueous solution of its salt and bromine can also displace iodine because of the trend in reactivity.
Where are transition elements located?
They make up the big clump of metals in the middle of the periodic Table
What are the Properties of the transition metals (4)?
- Good conductors of heat and electricity
- Very dense, strong and shiny
- They are less reactive than group 1 metals - they don’t react as vigorously with water or oxygen
- They are much denser, stronger and harder than the group 1 metals and have a higher melting point (except Mercury as that’s a liquid at room temp) e.g iron melts at 1500c, copper at 1100c
What do transition metals often have?
More than one ion e.g iron Fe2+ and Fe3+, copper Cu+ and Cu2+ and chromium Cr2+ and Cr3+
What do the different ions usually form?
Different coloured compounds e.g Fe2+ usually gives green compounds whereas Fe3+ usually forms red/brown ones - like rust
Why are compounds colourful?
Because of the transition metal ion they contain
What colour is the compound potassium chromate (VI)?
Yellow
What colour is the compound potassium manganite (VI)?
Purple
What colour is the compound copper(II) sulfate?
Blue
What are the colours in gemstones like blue sapphires and green emeralds and the colours in pottery glazes due to?
Transition metals
What colour is weathered copper?
Green
Do transition metals and their compounds make good catalysts?
Yes
What catalyst is used in the haber process to make ammonia?
Iron
What catalyst is used for the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide?
Manganese(IV) oxide
What catalyst is used for turning oils into fats for making margarine?
Nickel
What do you need to know about transition metals?
They form ions with different charges, form coloured compounds and make good catalysts
What does whether water is hard or soft depend on?
The rocks the water meets on the way
What does hard water make?
Scum and scale
When adding soap to soft water what do you get?
A Lather
When adding soap to hard water what do you get?
A nasty scum (unless you’re using a soapless detergent)
Why does hard water create scum when soap is added?
Dissolved calcium ions and magnesium ions in the water reacts with the soap to create scum
Why is hard water a waste of money?
Because to get a decent lather you need more soap but soap isn’t free so that means more money is used buying soap than if you had soft water
When heated, what does hard water form on the inside of pipes, boilers and kettles?
Scale (mostly Calcium carbonate)
Where does scale usually reside?
On the insides of pipes, boilers and kettles
Why is having badly scaled up pipes and boilers bad? (2)
Because it reduces efficiency of heating systems cause scale is a thermal insulator so a kettle with scale on the heating element takes longer to boil than a clean kettle so it’s less efficient
and it may need to be replaced which costs money as scale can eventually block pipes
What is hardness of water caused by?
Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions
Calcium and magnesium ions
What does water go through to make it become hard?
As rain falls on some types of rocks e.g limestone, chalk and gypsum, it can dissolve compounds like magnesium sulfate (which is soluble) and calcium sulfate (which is slightly soluble)
What are calcium ions goods for?
Healthy teeth and bones
What are the benefits of hard water? (2)
Some say people who live in hard water areas are at less of a risk of developing heart disease than people who live in soft water areas due to the minerals in hard water .
Calcium is good for teeth and bones.
What are the two kinds of hard water?
Temporary and permanent
What is temporary hardness caused by?
Hydrogencarbonate ion, HC0 - in Ca(HC0 )
3 3 2
What causing permanent hardness?
Dissolved calcium sulfate
How do you remove temporary hardness?
By boiling. When heated the Cali um Hydrogencarbonate decomposes to form calcium carbonate which is insoluble. This solid is the lime scale on your kettle.
What is the word equation for removing temporary hardness?
Calcium Hydrogencarbonate —> calcium carbonate + water + carbondioxide
Why doesn’t boiling remove permanent hardness?
Heating a sulfate doesn’t do anything
What is the method to soften both types of hard water using washing soap?
Add washing soda (sodium carbonate Na CO ) to it.
2 3
The added carbonate ions react duty the Calcium and magnesium ions to make an insoluble precipitate of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate. The calcium and magnesium ions are no longer dissolved in the water so they can’t make it hard.
What is the equation for softening water using washing soap?
Ca2+ CO 2- —> CaCO
3 3
What is another way to remove hardness from water using an exchange?
By running water through an ion exchange column as the columns have a lot of sodium or hydrogen ions and exchange them for calcium or magnesium ions running in the water softening the water.
What is the equation for softening water using the ion exchange column?
Na Resin + Ca2+ —> CaResin + 2Na+
2
Explain how you could use a titration to compare the hardness of water samples? (8)
- Fill a burette with 50cm3 of soap solution
- Add 50cm3 of the first sample into a flask
- Use the burette to add 1cm3 of soap solution to the flask
- Put a bung in the flask and shake for 10seconds
- Repeat steps three and four until a good lasting lather is formed
- Record how much soap was needed go create a lasting lather
- Repeat the steps with the other water samples
- Next, boil fresh samples of each type of water for ten minutes and repeat the experiment
What is a lasting lather?
Where the bubbles cover the surface for at least thirty seconds
As water is essential for life what must it be free from? (2)
Poisonous salts e.g phosphates and nitrates
Harmful microbes as they can cause diseases such as cholera and dysentery
Where does most of our drinking water come from?
Reservoirs
How does water get into reservoirs?
By flowing in from rivers and groundwater and company’s choose to build reservoirs when there’s a good supply of water
Where do government agencies keep a close eye on for pollution?
Reservoirs, rivers and groundwater
The water treatment stages the water from reservoirs goes through (4)
- Water is passed through a mesh screen to remove big bits like twigs (screening)
- Chemicals are added to make solids and microbes stick together and fall to the bottom (removal of solids)
- The water is filtered through gravel beds to remove all the solids (filtration)
- Water is chlorinated to kill off any harmful microbes left (chlorination)
What do the filters people buy to filter tap water in their homes contain?
Carbon or silver
What do the carbon and silver in the home filters do?
Carbon removes chlorine taste and silver is supposed to kill germs
What do some people in hard water areas buy?
Water softener which contain ion exchange resins
How do you produce totally pure water with nothing dissolved in it?
By distillation - boiling water to make steam and condensing the steam.
Why can’t we use distillation to produce tap water?
It is too expensive and requires a lot of energy to boil all the water we use
Where is distilled water used and why?
In chemistry laps so in an experiment there is nothing in the water like ions that could change the results of an experiment
Why is fluoride added to drinking water in some parts of the country?
It helps reduce tooth decay
Why is chlorine added to water?
It prevents diseases
What are some drawbacks to adding chlorine to water?
It has been linked to an increased risk in certain cancers -
It can react with natural substances in water to product toxic-by- products which some say could cause cancer
What are some drawbacks to adding fluoride to water? (2)
In high doses it can cause cancer and bond problems in humans so some believe it shouldn’t be added to water.
People also have the concern if it’s right to “mass medicate” cause people can choose to use fluoride toothpaste but they can’t choose whether there water has fluoride in.
Why does the level of chemicals added to drinking water need to be monitored?
In some areas the water may already contain a lot of fluoride so adding more may be harmful etc.
What is a reversible reaction?
The proud to of the reaction can themselves react to product the original reactants
What is the symbol for a reversible reaction?
______\
______
\
If a reversible reaction takes place in a closed system what will always be reached?
A state of equilibrium
What does a state of equilibrium mean?
The amount of reactants and products will reach a certain balance.
The reactions are still taking place in both directions but there is no overall effect because the forward and backwards reactions cancel each other out. The reactions are taking place at exactly the same rate in both directions.
What is a closed system?
A place where none of the reactants or products can escape
What are the two things that the position of equilibrium depend strongly on?
The temperature and pressure surrounding the reaction
What would happen if you altered the temperature and pressure of a reversible reaction?
The position of equilibrium would move to give more product and less reactants
Explain how temperature can change the position of the equilibrium in a reversible reaction
All reactions are exothermic in one direction and endothermic in the other
If you raise the temperature the endothermic reaction will increase to use up the extra heat but if you reduce the temperature the exothermic reaction will increase to give out more heat
Increase heat the equilibrium seeks to lower the temperature so favours endothermic reaction
Decrease heat the equilibrium weeks go increase the temperature and favours exothermic reaction
Explain how pressure on a reversible reaction can change the position of the equilibrium
Many reactions have a greater volume on one side, either of products or reactants (but if it’s the same then changing pressure doesn’t help)
If you raise the pressure it will encourage the reaction which produces less volume
If you lower the pressure it will encourage the reaction which produces more volume
Why does adding a catalyst not change the equilibrium position?
Catalyst speed up both the forward and backward reactions by the same amount so adding a catalyst means the reaction reaches equilibrium quicker but you end up with the same amount of product as you would without the catalyst
What does the Haber process produce?
Ammonia (NH ) which is used to make fertilisers
3
What elements are needed to make ammonia?
Nitrogen and hydrogen
What is the chemical equation to make ammonia?
N + 3H reversible symbol 2NH (+ heat)
2 2 3
Where is the nitrogen obtained from in the Haber process?
From the air which is about 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen
Where does the hydrogen needed in the Haber process come from?
Natural gas or from other sources like crude oil
What kind of reaction is the Haber process?
It is reversible so the nitrogen and hydrogen react to form ammonia and this can break down again into nitrogen and hydrogen
Can the Haber process reach an equilibrium?
Yes
For the Haber Process what are the best industrial conditions?
Pressure at 200 atmosphere , temperature at 450*C and an iron catalyst
Explain why in the Haber process the pressure is at 200 atmosphere
Because higher pressure favours the forwards reaction since there are four molecules of gas on the left hand side for every two on the right
So the pressure is set as high as possible to give the best percentage yield without making the plant too expensive to build as having a pressure of 1000 would be very expensive so it is at 200 instead
Explain why in the Haber process the temperature is set at 450*c
The forward reaction is exothermic which means that increasing the temperature will actually move the equilibrium the wrong way toward the nitrogen and hydrogen and the yield for ammonia would be best at a lower temperature.
However lower temps means a lower rate of reaction so they increase the temperature anyway to get a faster rate of reaction.
The 450*c is a compromise between the maximum yield and speed of reaction as its bet to wait 20 seconds for 10% yield than 60 seconds for 20% yield.
What happens to the ammonia in the Haber Process?
As it is formed it is a gas but it cools in a condensed so it liquefies and is removed to be used
What happens to the used hydrogen and nitrogen in the Haber process?
They are recycled so nothing is wasted
What does the iron catalyst in the Haber process do?
It makes the reaction go faster which gets it to the equilibrium proportions more quickly but it does not affect the position of equilibrium (I.e the % of yield obtained)
Why is the iron catalyst in the Haber process so important?
Without it the temperature would have to be raised even further to get a quick enough reaction and that would rescue the % yield even further so the catalyst is important
Why is the temperature in the Haber process so high when it would benefit from a lower temperature?
It is not high for a better equilibrium but for speed and it doesn’t matter the percentage yield is low because the unused hydrogen and nitrogen is recycled
How the Haber process works
Hydrogen and nitrogen are put into the machine in the ratio 3:1 , they travel to the reaction vessel which has trays of the iron catalyst in to speed up the reaction, the reaction vessel is at 450*c and 200 atmosphere and this creates ammonia gas. The gas is cooked in the condenser and the unused H2 and N2 are recycled back into the plant.
What is the functional group of alcohols?
-OH
What do alcohols end in?
-ol
What is the general formula for an alcohol?
C H OH
n 2n+1
What is the formula of an alcohol with two carbons?
C H OH
2 5
What are the first three alcohols in the homologous series and what’s a good way to remember them
Methanol, Ethanol, propanol
My elephant peels
What is the structure and formula of methanol
H
|
H-C-O-H
|
H
CH OH
3
What is the structure and formula for ethanol
H H
| |
H-C-C-O-H
| |
H H
C H OH
2 5
What is the structure and formula for propanol
H H H
| | |
H-C-C-C-O-H
| | |
H H H
C H OH
3 7
What is the basic naming system for alcohols?
It is the same as the Alkane but replace the final -e with -ol e.g butane would be butanol
Why cant you write CH O instead of CH OH
4 3
Because it doesn’t show the functional -OH group
What are the properties of the first three alcohols? (3)
- They are flammable , they burn in air to produce carbon dioxide and water
- They all dissolve completely in water to form neutral solutions
- They react with sodium to give hydrogen and alkoxides e.g ethanol gives sodium ethoxide and Hydrogen
What is the main alcohol used in alcoholic drinks? And why?
Ethanol because it’s not as toxic as methanol as that causes blindness if drunk
What is a drawback to drinking ethanol?
It damages the liver and brain
Why can alcohols like methanol and ethanol be used as solvents?
Because they can dissolve most compounds that water dissolves but that can also dissolve substances that water can’t dissolve like oils and fats
What are some substances that alcohols can dissolve but water can’t? (3)
Hydrocarbons, oils and fats
What is ethanol a solvent for and why?
Perfumes and aftershave lotions because it can mix with both the oils (which give the smell) and the water (that makes up the bulk of it)
What is methylated spirit?
Ethanol with chemicals like methanol added to it
What is methylated spirit used for?
To clean point brushes and as a fuel
Why is purply-blue dye added to methylated spirit?
It is poisonous to drink so the colour stops people drinking it by accident
How can ethanol be used as a fuel? (3)
- ethanol is used as a fuel in spirit burners as it burns fairly cleanly and doesn’t smell
- ethanol can be mixed with petrol and used as a fuel for cars because pure ethanol is clean burning so the more ethanol in the petrol the less pollution
- some countries have little oil deposits but lots of land like Brazil so they grow loads of sugar cane which ferments to form ethanol and sugar cane is a renewable resource which is an advantage
What is the equation for burning alcohol for example methanol in the air?
2CH OH + 3O —> 2CO + 4H O
3 2
What is the equation for reaction sodium and an alcohol for example ethanol?
2C H OH + 2Na —> 2C H ONa + H
2 5 2 5 2
What is the functional group of carboxylic acids?
-COOH
How would you recognise a carboxylic acid from a name?
Their names end in -anoxic acid and start with the normal (meth/eth/prop) etc.
What is the structure of methanoic acid and its formula?
O
//
H-C
\
OH
HCOOH
What is the structure and formula of ethanoic acid?
H O
| //
H-C-C
| \
H OH
CH COOH
3
What is the structure and formula of propanoic acid?
H H O
| | //
H-C- C-C
| | \
H H OH
C H COOH
2 5
When carboxylic acid reacts with carbonates what is produced?
Salt, water and carbondioxide
What do the salt form when carboxylic acid and carbonates react end in?
- anoate for example methanoic acid will form a methanoate
Give the word equation for if ethanoic acid and sodium carbonate reacted
Ethanoic acid + sodium carbonate –> sodium ethanoate + water + carbon dioxide
When carboxylic acids dissolve in water what does it produce?
Acidic solutions
What happens when a carboxylic acid dissolves in water?
They ionise and release H+ ions which are responsible for making the solution acidic but because they don’t ionise completely (not many H+ ions are released) they form weak acidic solutions so they have a higher PH that aqueous solutions of strong acids with the same concentration
How is the strength of an acid different to the concentration?
Concentration is how watered down your acid is and strength is how well it has ionised in the water
How can you make ethanoic acid?
By oxidising ethanol. Microbes like yeast cause the ethanol to ferment and ethanol can also be oxidised using oxidising agents.
Give the word equation for making ethanoic acid
Ethanol + oxygen –> ethanoic acid + water
How can you make vinegar?
Oxidising ethanol to create ethanoic acid which can be dissolved in water to make vinegar
Uses of vinegar (2)
Flavouring and preserving food
Where is citric acid present?
Oranges and lemons and manufactured to make fizzy drinks
What is a good use of citric acid?
To get rid of scale
What can carboxylic acids with longer chains of carbon atoms be used for in the industry?
To make soap and detergents
What can carboxylic acids be used in the preparation of?
Esters
Ethanoic acid is a good solvent for many organic molecules, but why isn’t it usually chosen as a solvent?
Because it makes the solution acidic
What is the functional group of an ester?
-COO-
How are esters formed?
From an alcohol and a carboxylic acid and an acid catalyst is usually used e.g concentrated sulfuric acid
Give the general word equation for making an ester
Alcohol + carboxylic acid –> ester + water
Give the structural equation to make an ester from ethanoic acid and ethanol
H O. H. H. H. O. H
| //. |. |. |. //. /
H-C-C + HO-C-C-H —> H-C-C. H H. + O
| . |. |. |. . |. |. \
H OH. H. H. H. O-C-C-H. H
|. |
H. H
Ethanoic acid Ethanol Ethyl ethanoate water
CH COOH. C H OH. CH COOC H H O
3. 2. 5 3. 2. 5. 2
How do you figure out the name of the ester?
The alcohol for,s the first part of the name(then it’s - Yl on the end) and the acid forms the second part ( and -oate on the end)
E.g ethanol + ethanoic acid –> ethyl ethanoate + water
What do esters usually smell like?
Quite sweet and fruity and pleasant
Esters are quite v____
Volatile
Why does esters volatility make them ideal for perfumes?
The evaporated molecules can be detected by smell receptors in your nose
Why does esters volatility make them potentially dangerous?
Because many esters are flammable
Why don’t esters mix well with?
Water (they are no where near as soluble as alcohols or carboxylic acids)
What do esters mix well with? (2)
Alcohols and organic solvents
Why are esters used in perfumes?
Because they smell nice
What, besides perfumes, are esters used to make? (4)
Flavourings, aromas, ointments (deep heat), solvents (for paint glue and nail varnish)
Why are esters used to make flavourings and aromas?
Because there are some esters that smell or taste of rum, Apple , orange , banana , grape, pineapple etc
What makes an ester dangerous? (3)
- Inhaling the fumes of some esters can irritate mucous membrane in the nose and mouth
- Ester fumes are heavier than air and flammable - flammable vapour + naked flake = flash fire
- Some esters are toxic especially in large doses so some people worry about health problems associated with synthetic food additives like esters
Why are esters a better solution that some other organic solvents?
Because they aren’t as volatile of as toxic as some and they don’t release nearly as many toxic fumes as some of the organ solvents - esters have even replaced solvents such as toluene in many paints and varnishes
Examples of esters and their smells
Methyl butanoate - pineapple, Apple
Methyl pentanoate- flowery
Octyl butanoate - parsnip
Octyl ethanoate - orange
What is washing soap?
Sodium carbonate
