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Principles of Neuropsychology > Unit 3: Systems, Functions, and Disorders > Flashcards

Unit 3: Systems, Functions, and Disorders Flashcards

1
Q

What is working memory?

A

Temporary storage and information manipulation to complete complex cognitive tasks such as language comprehension, learning, and reasoning in a short time span.

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2
Q

What is psychometrics?

A

The science devoted to the quantitative measurement and statistical appraisal of mental abilities.

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3
Q

Where is a neuroanatomically important area for working memory?

A

The superior longitudinal fasciculus which connects the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes is connected to working memory ability.

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4
Q

Is intelligence connected to working memory?

A

Yes.

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5
Q

What are receptive functions?

A

Abilities that select, acquire, classify, and integrate information.
Ex: Sensory reception and perception.

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6
Q

What is memory and learning? What are some examples of it?

A

Abilities that store information and retrieve that information.
Ex: Working memory, declarative memory, anterograde memory, retrograde memory, short-term memory, long-term memory, and spatial memory.

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7
Q

What is thinking?

A

Mental organization and reorganization of information
Ex: Problem-solving skills, executive functions.

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8
Q

What are expressive functions? What conditions arise from impairments of this?

A

The means in which information is communicated and acted upon.
Aphasia and apraxia.

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9
Q

Is g a value construct?

A

Yes. It does tie into intelligence and working memory. It just doesn’t encompass one known variable but a very complicated concept/function.

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10
Q

What is intelligence?

A

Intelligence is an aspect of behavior, not a quality of the mind.
Intelligence is not one singular thing. It’s a multifaceted entity that has many definitions and subdivisions.
Intelligent behavior must have meaning, be rational, and be considered worthwhile.

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11
Q

Can intelligence be quantified?

A

One single score cannot tell us everything about intelligence as there are many different types and it can change based on context. But, we can measure the capacity of an individual to understand the world around them and their resourcefulness to cope with its challenges.

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12
Q

What areas did H.M. have removed?

A

A temporal lobe resection was completed that included damage to the uncus, amygdala, and hippocampus.

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13
Q

What did we learn about from H.M.?

A

We learned about the role of the medial temporal lobe in anterograde declarative memory formation and how it is not involved in procedural memory formation.
It was not yet known whether the damage was hippocampus-specific.

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14
Q

What paper quashed the debate about where anterograde memory formation is localized?

A

Zola-Morgan, 1986 with patient R.B. with specific hippocampus damage.

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15
Q

How could patient Boswell learn who to go toward for a treat if he couldn’t learn who anyone was?

A

He used covert learning to associate different faces or features with them being more likely to treat him well.
This demonstrates that the hippocampus and amygdala are the preferred structures for covert learning but they are not required for it to happen.

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16
Q

How did patients with amygdala damage respond to fear conditioning?

A

Patients with amygdala damage have deficits in acquiring autonomic conditioning responses though they know that about the conditioning.

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17
Q

How did patients with hippocampus damage respond to fear conditioning?

A

Patients with hippocampus damage have deficits in remembering the conditioning that occurred but still have the conditioning.

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18
Q

How did patients with both amygdala and hippocampus damage respond to fear conditioning?

A

Patients with hippocampus and amygdala damage have deficits in both remembering the conditioned stimulus and providing the fearful response.

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19
Q

Is the hippocampus necessary for the sustained experience/memory of emotion?

A

No, it is not. Patients with hippocampus lesions and patients with Alzheimer’s can experience emotion and sustain that emotion even after the memory of what triggered that emotion is forgotten.

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20
Q

What does the anterior hippocampus do?

A

The anterior hippocampus functions more in emotion, stress, and sensorimotor integration for memory.
This may explain H.M.’s dampened emotional responses and deficit in explaining internal states.

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21
Q

What does the posterior hippocampus do?

A

The posterior hippocampus has more function dedicated to declarative memory and neocortex-supported cognition.
This may explain H.M.’s intact perceptual learning and perceptual priming.

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22
Q

What is speech?

A

Speech = the coordinated muscle activity for oral communication and the neural networks that control that activity.

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23
Q

What is language?

A

Language = signal system used to communicate between individuals.

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24
Q

What is thought?

A

Thoughts = mental activity that is linguistic and non-linguistic.

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25
Q

Why are speech, language, and thought distinct from each other?

A

These separate definitions can help differentiate between different types of aphasia and what therapies will be more effective for them.

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26
Q

What is the left perisylvian language network of the human brain? What are the key structures/areas, and where are they located?

A

The left perisylvian network is the area surrounding the lateral fissure. Key structures include Broca and Wernicke’s area.

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27
Q

What are the hallmarks of Broca’s aphasia?

A

Halting speech
Disordered syntax
Disordered grammar
Impaired repetition
Intact comprehension

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28
Q

What are the hallmarks of Wernice’s aphasia?

A

Fluent speech
Good syntax
Good grammar
Poor comprehension
Impaired repetition

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29
Q

What are the hallmarks of global aphasia?

A

Poor speech production
Poor comprehension

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30
Q

What activity can aphasia patients do without trouble that is surprising?

A

They can sing previously learned songs.

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31
Q

What are the hallmarks of conduction aphasia?

A

Fluent speech
Intact comprehension
Impaired repetition

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32
Q

What does fluency mean in aphasic patients?

A

Fluency = how easy it is to get speech out of their mouth. Does not refer to whether those sounds make sense or not.

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33
Q

What does repetition mean in aphasic patients?

A

Repetition is whether you can repeat words that are told to you.
Repetition depends on the perislyvian belt with Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, and the fasciculus between them.

34
Q

What does mental lexicon mean?

A

Mental lexicon = mental storage of information about a word.

35
Q

What is a morpheme?

A

Morpheme = smallest unit of representation in the mental lexicon.

36
Q

What is a phonological form?

A

Phonological form = sound property of a word.

37
Q

What is a phoneme?

A

Phoneme = smallest unit of sound that makes a difference to meaning.

38
Q

What does semantic mean?

A

Semantic = meanings of words.

39
Q

How does the mental lexicon help in communication?

A

Knowing what words mean, and what they sound like, and practicing how they are used in context helps the mental lexicon to select the correct words to perceive.

40
Q

What is akinetic mutism, and what are the neural correlates of this condition?

A

There is a lack of motivation to understand and produce language. Damage to the anterior cingulate gyrus and supplemental motor area leads to this.

41
Q

How are different naming categories localized?

A

Deficit in the naming of people was clustered in the left temporal lobe.
Deficit in naming animals was correlated to damage in the left inferotemporal section.
Deficit in naming tools was correlated with damage in the posterolateral inferotemporal region.

42
Q

What is a rehabilitation strategy for naming deficits?

A

Errorless learning = maximum cues are given during training so that patients never make mistakes.
This is a better way to rehabilitate naming deficits rather than rote memorization.

43
Q

What is the arcuate fasciculus?

A

The neural fiber tract that connects Wernicke’s and Broca’s area.

44
Q

What is emotion?

A

Emotion = physiological responses that occur in response to stimuli.

45
Q

What is feeling?

A

Feeling = conscious experience of physiological somatic and cognitive changes.

46
Q

How is emotion linked to memory?

A

Emotionally salient memories are more likely to be remembered.

47
Q

What are some observations about SM that support the amygdala being important for fear processing?

A

SM has experienced many scary situations in her life but does not seem to suffer from any kind of PTSD.
SM can not register fear in others’ faces.
SM does not experience fear herself. This was seen in her experience in the exotic pet shop and the haunted house.

48
Q

Are vmPFC lesion patients more or less lenient in 3rd party punishment scenarios?

A

vmPFC patients set out more lenient punishments for emotionally evocative violent crimes.
The vmPFC patients may have been more lenient because they did not generate the normative emotional response.

49
Q

Are vmPFC lesion patients more or less lenient in 2nd party punishment scenarios?

A

vmPFC patients are more punitive in second-party punishment scenarios when they are the victim.

50
Q

How are emotions connected to decision-making?

A

Emotions can also lead to decision-making. They can make it easier to fall into authoritarianism and religious fundamentalism.

51
Q

What is the false tagging theory?

A

False Tagging Theory (FTT) = prefrontal cortex is critical for doubting properly comprehended cognitive representations.

52
Q

Why are vmPFC patients more likely to fall into authoritarianism and religious fundamentalism?

A

A reason why these vmPFC patients have higher authoritarian and religious fundamentalism scores is that they are poor at tagging new religious notions as false (fictile state account) or the damage to the vmPFC removes any existing doubt records of religious beliefs, therefore increasing their beliefs (damaged doubt records).

53
Q

What are executive functions and where are they localized?

A

The prefrontal cortex is localized for executive functions such as planning, judgment, reasoning, decision-making, emotional regulation, and social conduct.

54
Q

How are executive function skills important for adaptive behavior?

A

These are all important for adaptive behavior because they allow you to compare different choices and make different decisions based on your values, goals, and motivations. They are also used to switch ideas quickly when something else comes up. In social situations, people have to be deft in their navigation to respond to the person appropriately while getting what they wish out of the conversation. These skills are also used to respond appropriately and quickly to failure.

55
Q

What is cognitive control and where is it localized?

A

Cognitive control = response inhibition, conflict monitoring, error detection, and task switching.
The dorsolateral and anterior cingulate cortex are associated with this.
Cognitive control takes the goal set by the valuation system and moves it into an actionable plan.

56
Q

What is valuation and where is it localized?

A

Valuation = decision-making, motivating behavior based on perceived values, and reward learning.
Rewards are compared and a motivated goal is set.
It is localized to the ventral PFC.

57
Q

Why is it challenging to test executive function skills on laboratory tests?

A

It’s challenging because executive function skills are used in real life and the examination room does not proxy that appropriately.

58
Q

What are preservation and inflexibility in executive function impairment?

A

Perseveration and inflexibility refer to a deficit in switching tasks. This is an impairment of executive functions. This rigidity is due to difficulties in planning, short-term memory, temporal ordering, and control of distractions.

59
Q

Why do some people have a positive personality change after frontal lobe damage?

A

Patients rated by people close to them as having a positive personality change were more likely to have bilateral frontal pole region damage and right anterior dorsolateral prefrontal damage.
They were also more likely to have been rated as having more disturbed functioning before the event.
There is a change in activation patterns in these areas that are likely contributing to this change.

60
Q

What are negative personality changes that can occur after frontal lobe damage?

A

Negative personality changes: increased irritability, moodiness, and social inappropriateness.

61
Q

Why is hoarding associated with frontal lobe damage?

A

When someone’s valuation ability goes awry, they tend to hoard. They place too much value on items either emotionally or monetarily and have trouble seeing their true value. They have trouble in weighing the cost-benefit analysis.

62
Q

What are the 3 important lessons we learned from Gage and EVR?

A

Frontal lobe damage cases provide insight into sociopathic behavior.
Frontal lobe damage cases provide insight into orbital and lower mesial frontal lobe function.
Clinicians are alerted to the extreme dissociation possible between responses to performance in psychological tests and behavior in real-life situations.

63
Q

What is the somatic marker hypothesis?

A

The somatic marker hypothesis defined here states that patients with frontal lobe damage are not able to activate the somatic states, the emotions, linked to punishment and reward. Thus, they are likely to go for immediate rewards and choices that avoid punishment without going for delayed immediate rewards but with greater rewards in the long run.

64
Q

How do vmPFC patients respond to fake and real-world emotional scenarios?

A

In abstract scenarios, these patients can describe the social rules they know. But, when it comes to making real-world decisions they are unable to have the correct emotional reaction and use executive functioning skills to make the best decision so they go for ones that support the aggregate. They do not experience the emotional experience of the thought of hurting someone.

65
Q

How do early-onset vmPFC patients differ from late-onset patients?

A

Lack of social and moral knowledge that the adult-onset patients had.
Choose more self-serving choices.
On Piaget’s scale, they were at a much lower developmental level. These findings implicate that PFC damage may have led to a broken cortical control for the punishment and reward system as a whole.

66
Q

How did patients who received vmPFC lesions at 0-5 years old differ from those aged 8-17 years old?

A

Earlier lesion patients (0-5 years) chose more self-serving choices than those who had the lesions during school years (8-17).

67
Q

Why do vmPFC patients only have impairments in emotional decision-making?

A

Not having the appropriate emotional response can lead to quick decisions without going through the emotional experience of each option and deciding the benefit-risk analysis of each choice.

68
Q

What is anosognosia?

A

Anosognosia is the lack of knowledge of a health condition, disability, or disease.

69
Q

What is anosodiaphoria?

A

For anosodiaphoria, the patient is aware of the existence of the disability but they seem indifferent to its existence.

70
Q

How do the constructs of “denial” and “unawareness” relate to each other, in the context of anosognosia?

A

Anosognosia is a very complex condition. It could be the cognitive mechanisms for self-awareness are damaged, the brain is receiving weak or imprecise signals about the physiological state of the neglected part of the body, or it could be a psychological phenomenon that is leading to a lack of explicit awareness even though implicit awareness is intact.
Anosognosia can occur due to a lack of proper emotional appraisal ability or a mechanism of denial to protect someone from something they view as unacceptable.

71
Q

What is neglect/inattention?

A

Neglect = a syndrome where there is a lack of awareness of one side of intra- and extrapersonal space.

72
Q

What are the most common clinical manifestations of neglect, and what are the most common neuroanatomical correlates?

A

Neglect usually occurs after right hemisphere brain damage in the posterior parietal lobe, specifically in the supramarginal gyrus of the right inferior parietal lobule or the more anterior premotor cortex. This leads to the left side being the one that is typically neglected. Patients will ignore the neglected side in their drawings or movements. They will have a bias to the side that is not neglected. They also typically have decreased emotional responses to the neglected side. If they are prompted to recognize what is happening on the neglected side, they may talk about it in an absent-minded or annoyed tone.

73
Q

Define the clinical phenomenon of extinction to double simultaneous stimulation. How does this phenomenon help inform the clinician about the presence of neglect?

A

Double simultaneous stimulation is where an examiner provides visual, haptic, or audio stimulation to both sides simultaneously. If a patient does not perceive stimulation on one side, that can indicate they are neglecting that side. This still needs to be teased out if it is neglect or if there is damage to subcortical or primary sensory regions.

74
Q

Why does damage to the right hemisphere lead to neglect and anosognosia?

A

Right hemisphere damage is more likely to lead to neglect because its localized functions include emotion and affect, mapping body states, and relations between the body and the outside world.

75
Q

What is prosopagnosia?

A

Prosopagnosia is a specific deficit in a lack of recognizing faces.

76
Q

Do prosopagnosia patients have “nonconscious face recognition”?

A

Yes. Prosopagnosia subjects had larger skin conductance results to the familiar faces than the unfamiliar faces. So, there may be implicit recognition of the faces but that knowledge is not explicit due to damage in the mesial occipitaltemporal cortices.

77
Q

What parts of individuals can prosopagnosia patients use to distinguish between people?

A

Distinctive features.
They can also tell age, gender, and facial expressions.

78
Q

What is the ventral stream and what does it do?

A

Ventral stream = object recognition.
Occurs in the temporal lobe.

79
Q

What is the dorsal stream and what does it do?

A

Dorsal stream = motor/spatial components, where an object is.
Occurs in the parietal lobe.

80
Q

Who is David Hubel and what work did he do?

A

He worked with cats and was able to record from different neurons and see how the visual cortex was organized. His work discovered ocular dominance columns and columnar organization in the visual cortex.

Principles of Neuropsychology (3 decks)

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