Unit 3: Sustainability Flashcards
1
Q
Food security
A
Is defined as having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, nutritious food. However:
- 800 million (1 in 9 on Earth) don’t have enough food to lead a healthy active life.
- 1 person in 4 in sub-Saharan Africa is malnourished.
- 1 in 6 children in developing countries is underweight and susceptible to disease. 1 in 4 of the worlds children has stunted growth.
Food security has become a major issue as the worlds population is expected to grow from 7 billion to over 9 billion by 2050.
2
Q
Future food crisis
A
In the late 18th century, Thomas Malthus, an English clergyman and economist, suggested that population growth would exceed the planets ability to produce food leading to a crisis point where families would keep population growth in check as the carrying capacity of the planet would be reached.
What Malthus didn’t consider was that technological advancements and innovation, particularly machinery, farming chemicals and new agricultural techniques would enable the Earths productivity to be stretched above demand. Theoretically the Earth could currently support a population of 10 billion. However this food, and the ability to produce it, is not evenly distributed.
3
Q
There are a number of concerns over food security, in addition to rising population growth:
A
- Climate change and processes such as drought, desertification, soil degradation and soil erosion taking agricultural land out of production.
- Changing dietary patterns in developing countries in particular, with an increasing demand for meat (livestock are less efficient in converting energy).
- Increased demand to use agricultural land for energy crops/ biofuels.
- The supply of fertiliser is limited (resources such as potash) and becoming increasingly expensive.
4
Q
Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO):
A
In November 2015, the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations set “Zero Hunger” as one of the 17 new Sustainable Development Goals which all countries should work towards by 2030.
5
Q
Changes in farming
A
Developed countries such as the UK have gone through significant change in agriculture since the Middle Ages.
6
Q
Changes in farming: Agrarain Society
A
Mainly peasant based, subsistence farmers who only produce enough to feed the,selves and their families. Overlap between consumers and producers.
7
Q
Changes in farming: Industrial Revolution (1800s)
A
Improved transport networks (rail) allowed food tone transported, some farming and food production processes became mechanised.
8
Q
Changes in farming: Technology Revolution (1940s-)
A
Widespread technology introduced into farming (machinery, chemicals) significantly increasing yields. Clear separation of producer/ consumer.
9
Q
Post war farming changes
A
WW2 almost saw Britain and other European nations stave to death. The years which followed saw a push towards maximising food security in key foodstuffs, with considerable investment in agriculture. Changes include:
- Mechanisation of procedures - more efficient, lower labour costs.
- Increased use of agrochemicals - fertilisers (nitrates, phosphates) and pesticides (herbicides, fungicides and insecticides) to boost crop yields.
- Removal of hedgerows and draining of ponds to maximise agricultural land.
- Concentration on growing most profitable crops, especially wheat and barley (leading to monoculture).
- Amalgamation of small farms and growth of agribusiness to improve efficiency.
Generally these changes saw a significant increase in yields, supported government and EU policies where farmers incomes were boosted (through subsidies, grants and loans) to guarantee food security.
10
Q
Diversification
A
Since the 1980s, some farmers who have struggled financially (especially livestock and dairy farmers) have attempted to boost their incomes by supplementing their incomes with non-farming activities (e.g. bed and breakfast, holiday homes, equestrian centers, camp sites). Grants and loans were available for this e.g. to renovate farm buildings. This can require considerable investment and can take a while to make profits, but it does allow some farmers to operate sustainably in terms of their income.
11
Q
Strategies to increase food production: Chemicals
A
Advantages:
- Ensures quality and yields of food (fewer pests).
- Doubled yields in. The U.K. since WW2.
- Helps support manufacturing industry, boost economy.
Disadvantages:
- Excess fertilisers lead to algal blooms and eutrophication.
- Pesticides in food chains (bioaccumulation).
- Some insects developing resistance to pesticides due to over-use.
12
Q
Strategies to increase food production: Machinery/ Technology
A
Advantages:
- Work done more efficiently, saving labour costs.
- Drones (UAVs) and satellite imaging can be used to monitor nutrient levels - saves on fertiliser application.
Disadvantages:
- Larger farmers benefit (can afford investments).
- Heavy machinery compacts soil leading to soil erosion.
- Habitat removal (hedgerows ripped out, ponds drained) to allow machinery space to work.
- Only 1/3 of crops are harvested in ELDCs using machinery.
13
Q
Strategies to increase food production: Irrigation
A
Advantages:
- Significant increase in yields e.g. Punjab, India.
- Allows cropping during dry seasons - multiple cropping.
Disadvantages:
- Large dams are expensive and can increase water loss via evaporation rates.
- Water being extracted from wells faster than it can be replaced, remaining groundwater supplies are saline.
14
Q
Strategies to increase food production: High Yield Varieties (HYVs)
A
Advantages:
- “Green Revolution” in ELDCs has significantly boosted yields - reduced famine and malnutrition.
- Sturdy crops not affected by high winds.
Disadvantages:
- HYV crops need a lot of fertilisers, pesticides and water (irrigation) to grow which increases costs and pollution.
- Expensive for peasant farmers (widens rich-poor gulf).
15
Q
Strategies to increase food production: GM Crops
A
Advantages:
- Plant traits can be transferred into another to produce “super” plant varieties.
- Increased yields - essential to support Earth’s growing population?
- Reduce raw materials (e.g. Oil) needed for fertilisers.
Disadvantages:
- Controversial -taking DNA/ genetic structure from one plant or animal and transferring it to another.
- Unknown impact on gene pool.
- Creation of “super weeds” which are resistant to chemicals.
16
Q
Strategies to increase food production: Organic Farming
A
Advantages:
- Reduces problems from using agrochemicals e.g. toxins in food chains, eutrophication.
- Better quality food produced (less pesticide residue).
- Organic produce can be stored for longer.
- Use of natural biological controls (e.g. ladybirds).
Disadvantages:
- Lower productivity levels.
- Food produced is more expensive (requires more labour inputs and maintenance).
- Only niche market at present (4% of UK food market).
17
Q
Strategies to increase food production: Improved Land Management Techniques
A
Advantages:
- Essential for peasant farmers in ELDCs (small farms).
- Crop rotation can help restore soil fertility, particularly if legumes are used (restore nitrogen to soil).
- Stone lines are simple methods to reduce soil erosion.
- Terraces reduce soil erosion.
- Intercropping/ agroforestry (talk crops providing shade) helps retain soil moisture.
Disadvantages:
- Difficulties of taking land out of production (fallow periods) with population pressure for food.
- Very labour intensive methods in developing countries, lack of technology and equipment.
- Trees can take time to become established and are vulnerable to drought.
18
Q
Strategies to increase food production: Hydroponics (farming without soil)
A
Advantages:
- Plants grown in sterile conditions restricts diseases and pests.
- Plants grow 24 hours round the clock e.g. lettuce can mature in 1/3 of the time.
- Crops can be grown in urban locations in confined locations (saving on food miles).
- Uses considerably less water.
Disadvantages:
- Expensive set up costs (installation of LED lighting).
- Higher labour costs.
- Need for qualified/ skilled workers (can be a complex processes).
19
Q
Strategies to increase food production: New Food Sources e.g. Insects
A
Advantages:
- Currently 2 billion eat insects.
- Abundant.
- Fast growing (mature in 20-30 days) and nutritious (protein rich).
- Can be grown inside in racks limited spaces - reduce demand on land for food (compared to livestock).
Disadvantages:
- Cultural problems in western countries, not accustomed to eating invertebrates.
20
Q
The common agricultural policy (CAP): Advantages
A
- Significantly increased food production and security in Europe, now self-sufficient in key foods e.g. grain, beef, wine, butter.
- Food price inflation has fallen since the 1970s and prices have become more affordable to consumers.
- Benefitted incomes of farmers who were paid subsidies to grow crops and given guaranteed prices.
- Farming became more industrial which led to a growth in the manufacturing industry e.g. making tractors, farm chemicals.
- EU Farmers against cheap imports from overseas - tariffs imposed on goods from outside Europe.
- Management of the farming landscape is essential for rural tourism (£15bn industry in the UK).
21
Q
The common agricultural policy (CAP): Disadvantages
A
- Farmers had become “too successful”, increased yields led to overproduction in the 1980s (grain “mountains”, wine “lakes”). Huge amounts of food were wasted or destroyed.
- Industrial farming had a negative impact on the environment: eutrophication of rivers and streams; bioaccumulation due to pesticides habitat loss (hedgerows and ponds drained).
- Quotas imposed to limit overproduction during the 1980s (milk). However, many dairy forced out of business due to financial losses.
- Set-a-side (1992) - cereal farmers were paid not to grow crops. But very wasteful, abolished in 2009.
- Politicians argue farming gets 40% of total EU budget despite contributing only 2% to overall EU economy. Other industries don’t get the same amounts of state/ EU support - huge imbalance.
- CAP payments made to landowners who don’t farm but have large grassy areas (e.g. airports, sports clubs).
- Large farmers have benefitted from subsidies at expense of small farmers; subsidies also make it impossible for ELDCs to compete.
22
Q
CAP reform
A
The traditional system of subsidies paid to farmers has now been updated through single farm payments. Farmers still get payments (subsidies) for land in production, but this is also conditional on practices for “greening” or “environmental stewardship. These include using fewer chemicals, restoring hedges, ponds and woodland, encouraging areas of wild flowers for birds and other organic methods. Crop farmers must also grow at least two types of crop (to reduce monoculture). Incentives for young people to move into farming (average age of British farmer is 59). Farming is typically an unattractive industry for people under 30. More financial support for smaller farmers.
23
Q
Sea fishing: two main types of fish
A
Pelagic - shallow feeders on nutrients and plankton e.g. herring, mackerel.
Demersal - deep feeders which feeding other species e.g. cod, haddock.
24
Q
Sea fishing: modern fishing methods
A
Use technology to track and catch large shoals of fish including radar, echo sounding and very large nylon trawl nets. Trawlers are often floating factories with large refrigerated holds so ships can spend long times out at sea maximizing their catch.
25
Sea fishing: problems with modern fishing methods
- Trawling (for demersal species) damages the sea bed, destroying corals and other habitats.
- Industrial methods and overfishing don't give fish stocks time to replenish. Species such as cod and herring in the North Sea and North Atlantic have declined significantly.
- Other species such as seabirds, turtles, sharks and dolphins are uder threat due to being caught in huge nets and unsustainable long line methods.
- Discarded equipment still causes problems for the environment - 1/4 of the rubbish on the bottom of the North Sea is estimated to be fishing equipment.
26
Sea fishing: Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) (EU) - How is the CFP implemented?
- Monitoring numbers of key species (using scientists).
- Quotas. Imposed on species known as the total allowable catch (TAC).
- Pays subsidies to fishermen.
- Restricting days at sea for each boat.
- Catches/ landings must be recorded.
- Restrictions on types and sizes of nets that can be used.
- Minimum size of fish that must be landed.
- Areas (e.g. North Sea) can be closed off to allow fish populations to recover known as "no take zones".
- Promoting alternative species (e.g. oily fish) which are caught sustainably.
27
Sea fishing: Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) (EU) - Criticisms of the CFP
- Large number of discards - small, dead fish which have been thrown back (too small) as they cannot be landed (quotas). Will be gradually phased out between 2015 and 2019.
- Very bureaucratic e.g. rules on net sizes are very complicated.
- Unemployment and decline of fishing ports as trawler men give up way of life.
- Arguably EU fishing fleet is still too large, CFP hasn’t tackled this.
- Conflicts e.g. UK fishing fleet angry that continental boats still allowed to fish in UK waters, despite falling fish stocks.
- CFP encourages price rises in endangered species (creates demand).
28
Aquaculture
Is the farming of aquatic animals and plants in fresh or salt water. It includes growing fin fish (e.g. salmon) in cages/ pens; shellfish grown on the seabed or trestles and growing seaweed. It now accounts for 50% of the worlds fish supply, compared to only 9% in 1980.
29
Aquaculture: Scotland
In Scotland most aquaculture is based on the commercial farming of salmon in large cages in sheltered coastal waters. Stages in reading commercial salmon:
Kelt (mature fish stripped of eggs - spawn)
Eggs (fertilised in hatchery)
Alvein (freshwater tanks, fed artificial diet)
Fry (same as Alvein)
Parr (1-2 years in freshwater)
Smolt (sea cages for 1 or 2 years)
Grilse ( mature fish for harvest)
30
Aquaculture: features of aquaculture in Scotland
- Huge growth industry over last 20 years.
- Scotland now has over 300 salmon farms around the west coast, Western Isles, Orkney and Shetland, in sheltered sea licks and inlets.
- Scotland produces 80% of farmed fish in the UK.
- Supports over 6000 jobs including 1500 in actual fish farms.
- Planned expansion to increase productivity, notably by Marine Harvest.
31
Aquaculture: Advantages
- Creates many jobs in rural areas, where they may otherwise be difficult to get. Additional jobs in food processing and transportation.
- Boosts standard of living in rural coastal villages and towns.
- £500 million contribution to Scottish economy per annum.
- Retail value now worth over £1billion.
- Now biggest food export (main exports to USA and France).
- Fish if the required size can be produced when the consumer requires it, not just during the natural salmon spawning season.
- Salmon now readily available to consumers, with additional health benefits. As an oily fish, it is a much healthier option than eating red meat.
32
Aquaculture: Disadvantages
- Excessive use of chemicals (antibiotics, growth hormones) can pollute the surrounding (sea bed) environment.
- Heavy metal toxins can build up on the sea bed.
- Eutrophication if waters around pens from salmon excrement (nitrogen waste).
- Salmon farms only have a lifespan of 10-15 years (due to pollution/ waste on sea bed).
- Salmon escape from pens and breed with wild salmon - altering gene pool.
- Parasites (lice) spread quickly between fish in high density pens (hold up to 90000 fish).
- Salmon are carnivorous, need to be fed on fish meal - 33% of global fish catch is for fish feed. Not an efficient use of food.
- Multinational companies e.g. Marine Harvest (Norwegian) take profits out of Scotland.
- Farmed Salmon is white, wild salmon is pink (due to eating krill) - supermarket farmed salmon has been dyed.
33
Energy sustainability
The demand for energy has increased increased significantly through the late 20th century and early 20th century. This is due to:
- Increased population growth and the need for power.
- Increasing demand from developing countries e.g. China and India.
- Urbanisation. As developing countries become more urban (and away from subsistence activities) their energy footprint increases.
- A boom in consumerism and desire for energy intensive lifestyles, using cars and electrical appliances.
34
Energy security
Can be defined as the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price. It is a complex issue and is affected by a number of factors:
- Political instability. Wars and conflicts can affect supplies (e.g. oil in the Middle East).
- A dependency on imports. Much of Europe depends on Russian gas for heating.
- Range of energy sources. Countries who have a wide range of generating.
- Changes in prices. Oil is volatile in price and frequency goes up and down.
- Natural hazards can disrupt supplies.g. the Japanese tsunami of 2011 forces a shut down of the country’s nuclear power plants.
- Climate change. Government policies (aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel usage) can affect supplies and costs.
35
There are clear differences in the sources of energy and usage of energy between developed and developing countries:
Energy sources:
Developed - fossil fuel usage is high and has been the main source of electricity, nuclear power, some growth in renewables technologies (mainly wind power).
Developing - mainly wood as a fuel source, limited but increasing fossil fuels (especially India and China), some HEP schemes where there are major rivers (Nile, Yangtze).
Energy usage:
Developed - industry, transportation, domestic/ household use.
Developing - heating and lighting (basic uses), limited industry and transportation.
36
Climate change: Greenhouse effect
Is a natural process which keeps the earths temperature at approx 30C warmer than it would be be. Small trace amounts of greenhouse gases (including CO2) trap heat radiated from the earths surface, warming the atmosphere.
37
Climate change: Over time the earth has warmed up and cooled down naturally. Natural factors which influence this include;
- Variation in solar energy (e.g. from sunspots) can affect how much solar energy (or insulation) reaches earth.
- Volcanic eruptions emit large amounts of CO2 which cause warming.
- Variations in the tilt and orbit of the earth as it rotates the sun affect insulation (known as Milankovich cycles).
- Changing ocean circulations patterns cause El Niño and La Niña which can change temps.
38
Climate change: Enhanced greenhouse effect
Where human activities contribute to a build up of greenhouse gases and increased warming of the atmosphere.
39
Climate change: Main greenhouse gases
- Carbon Dioxide
- Methane
- Water Vapour
- Nitrous Oxide
- Synthetic gases including CFCs, HFCs and PFCs
40
Climate change: Build up of greenhouse gases is due to;
- Burning fossil fuels (coal, gas and oil) in power stations, vehicles and as domestic heating sources.
- Deforestation which reduces the earths ability to absorb greenhouse gases such as CO2. The situation is worsened by the burning of vegetation.
- Vehicle exhausts producing nitrous oxide .
- Methane produced from agriculture from paddy fields and from digested systems of grazing livestock.
- Synthetic greenhouse gases (CFCs, HFCs) are released from industrial processes and from refrigeration units and aerosols.
41
Climate change: Negative Impact - Ocean Changes
- Increased sea level through thermal expansion (warmer water expands to occupy more room).
- Flooding of low lying coastal locations.
- Acidification of oceans. Increased amount of dissolved CO2 creates dilute carbonic acid, which can bleach corals and make conditions inhospitable for wildlife.
42
Climate change: Negative Impact - Increased Hazards
- Increased desertification as areas become more arid e.g. Sahel.
- Increased droughts and malnutrition/ famine as crops fail.
- Increased risk of wildfires.
- More tropical storms and hurricanes with more heat energy in the atmosphere and oceans.
43
Climate change: Negative Impact - Impact on Wildlife
- Pack ice will melt threatening Arctic species e.g. polar bear.
- Ranges of wildlife change as species adapt to temp changes.
- Change in food sources as oceans warm (fewer fish for seabirds).
- Small increases in temp can be fatal for species e.g. fish.
- Mangrove swamps ecosystems, threatened by sea level rise.
44
Climate change: Negative Impact - Human Health
- Increased famine and malnutrition as crops fail.
- Range of mosquitoes increases; more malaria and dengue fever cases.
- Restricted water supplies (increased evaporation).
- Increased mortality from heatwaves and heat stroke.
45
Climate change: Positive Impact
- Longer growing seasons and increased food production.
- Less sea ice (e.g. Arctic) crates new shipping lanes for increased trade and boosts to tourism (Arctic cruises).
- Lower heating bills and fuel consumption in colder countries.
- Opportunities for mining and resource extraction in the tundra as permafrost melts.
- Opportunities for developing new technologies to migrate climate change.
46
Climate change: Global Dimming
Is defined as the decrease in solar radiation (insolation) reaching the earths surface as increased greenhouse gases and particulates trigger cloud formation which reflects and absorbs solar energy.
47
Climate change: Global Dimming - Positive Impact
Has hidden some of the impact of global warming.
48
Climate change: Global Dimming - Negative Impact
Pollutants contribute to smog and acid rain; it interferes with the hydrological cycle - it can reduce rainfall causing drought and famine; it has contributed to a slight cooling of water in the northern hemisphere.
49
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions: Energy Generation
- Invest in renewable (wind, tidal, solar). Government policy can support this e.g. Scotland has the Renewables Obligation which competes power companies to source energy from renewable sources.
- Fit scrubbers on power station chimneys to catch CO2 and SO2.
- Carbon capture schemes, where CO2 is pumped underground into old cola and gas seams. This is relatively untested technology and their are concerns over leakages and it does not encourage a move away from burning fossil fuels.
- Using biomass fuel (renewable) as a fuel instead of coal or oil.
50
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions: Industry
- Use heat recovery systems to reduce demand.
- Energy conservation: switch off heating and lighting when not in use.
- More efficient blast furnace technology can reduce energy use.
- Automation of technologies (more efficient).
- Increase recycling, to use less resources.
51
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions: Transport
Promote public transport of car usage, including:
- Electrification of railways (smoother, more efficient service).
- Increasing capacity on railways (longer trains, longer platforms).
- Installing bus lanes to speed up journey times.
To reduce vehicles on roads, strategies used include:
- Congestion charging e.g. London reduces cars in city centres.
- Higher road taxes for "gas guzzling" cars.
- Local authorities can encourage cycle/ walk to work schemes and car pooling initiatives.
- Grants to encourage road hauliers to move goods by rail.
- Encourages "smoother" driving techniques - less sharp braking and rapid acceleration.
52
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions: Farming
- Regular servicing of farm vehicles which can decrease fuel consumption.
- Avoid unnecessary journeys with heavy, inefficient farm equipment.
- Insulate farm buildings can save energy.
- Use solar panels, wind turbines and straw burning boilers on the farm.
- Thermal screens within greenhouses (horticulture) save energy.
53
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions: Domestic
- Insulate homes to reduce heat loss (energy conservation) e.g. double glazing, cavity wall insulation, thicker loft insulation.
- More energy efficient domestic appliances (fridges, TVs, boilers).
- Encouraging switching off appliances and gadgets instead of leaving them on standby.
- Smart metres monitor energy use in the home.
- Install low energy bulbs instead of incandescent bulbs (which lose 95% of energy through heat).
54
Nuclear power
Is energy made through controlled nuclear reactions. In a nuclear reactor, atoms are bombarded by neutrons, forcing them to split up, causing a chain reaction which releases vast amounts of energy, known as nuclear fission. This heats water, creating steam which turns turbines, generating electricity. It is a controversial method of producing energy.
55
Nuclear power: Advantages
- Very limited resources (uranium) required to produce vast amounts of electricity (supplies about 25% of UKs demand at any time).
- Could fill potential gap between supply and demand in the UK.
- Doesn't produce greenhouse gas emissions.
- Can produce a constant supply of energy round the clock,unlike wind or hydro which are dependent on the elements.
- The technology is readily available, it doesn't have to be developed first (unlike tidal or wave power).
56
Nuclear power: Disadvantages
- Waste products remain radioactive for many years - difficult to dispose of. The half life of so,e radioactive elements is thousands of years emitting radioactivity.
- Risk of nuclear explosions e.g. Chernobyl and radioactive fallout.
- Radioactive leaks e.g. Fukushima (Japan), Sellafield, Dounreay and potential health risks (leukemia).
- Nuclear power station take a long time to construct, plans have to be made decade in advance of use.
- Cost of commissioning old power stations is extremely expensive and lengthy (can take up to 100 years).
- Require large public subsidies (sue to the cost of building such plants).
- Nuclear power stations are at risk from terrorist attack and sabotage.
- Uranium supplies predicted to last on,y another 50-100 years (finite resource).
57
Energy legislation: International
In 1997 the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) put forward the Kyoto Agreement (1997), where greenhouse gas emission were to be reduced by 5% by 2012 (based on 1990 levels).
Although a great idea in practice, Kyoto wasn't a great success, the USA refused to ratify i, concerned at the allowances given to India and China to generate emission were unfair. Developing countries stat edit was the responsibility of developed countries to show a lead on this.
In Paris in 2015, 195 countries finally adopted the first-ever universal, legally binding global climate deal.
58
Energy legislation: European
European Union Emission Trading System(Carbon Trading) was established in 2005. It allows firms to buy and sell "carbon credits" to areas who may not have reached their emission targets. The scheme has some criticisms:
- It doesn't directly encourage a move away from burning fossil fuels.
- It suits large co panties who can "offset" their emissions.
- Difficult to monitor actual emissions and there are fears some organizations are acting fraudulently.
59
Energy legislation: National (Scottish Government)
Within the Scottish Renewables Obligation (electricity companies must source more supplies from renewables sources). Over 30% of Scotland's electricity now comes from renewables including wind (over 20%) and hydro (10%).
Current legislation focus on policies which will reduce greenhouse gas emissions (Low Carbon Scotland), including:
- Electrification of the Glasgow-Edinburgh railway.
- Promoting energy efficiency and conservation (large scale home insulation scheme).
60
Energy legislation: Local
Within sustainable development initiatives operated by local authorities, the following can be used to reduce greenhouse gas emissions:
- Insulation schemes for council properties.
- Kerbside recycling schemes reduce the need for resource extraction and energy.
- Use of biomass/ organic waste in incineration plants.
- Traffic management e.g. congestion charging schemes.
61
Waste management hierarchy
Waste Minimisation and Prevention (changing behaviour to reduce waste. No waste is produced).
Reuse (using products e.g. carrier bags more than once).
Recycling (sort waste e.g. cardboard and plastics for reprocessing).
Energy Recovery (burn waste products locally to create electricity).
Disposal (landfill sites - the least sustainable solution).
62
Waste management: Disposal (Landfill)
Landfill has been the traditional method of waste disposal in the UL. It is convenient and costs effective way of waste disposal, but it has problems:
- Methane from rotting organic matter is a greenhouse gas and can be explosive.
- Contamination of rivers and water supplies rom leaches from holes in liners.
- Increase in vermin (rats, seagulls).
- Smell is very unpleasant for neighbouring communities.
- Most rubbish is non bio-degradable.
- Wind blow litter contaminates nearby areas.
- Traffic problems from constant stream of bin lorries.
- The UK is running out of landfill space.
Strategies to reduce landfill waste include:
- Zero Waste Scotland scheme sets strict targets for landfill (5% waste by 2025).
- Landfill Taxes. Local authorities will be increasingly penalized (fines) for the waste the send to landfill (EU rules).
- Recycling schemes - provision of different colored bins by local authorities.
- Increase the use beer of bottle banks and civic recycling centers.
- Reduce construction waste (the biggest contributor to UK landfill sites). Use of standard sizes and using just-in-time deliveries can reduce waste generated by building companies.
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Waste management: Incineration (Energy Recovery)
This involves the burning of waste, which can be used generate heat and electricity in incinerators. This system of waste disposal has a number of pros and cons:
Advantages;
- Generates electricity from waste.
- Appropriate method for disposing of harmful waste e.g. hospital waste.
- Reduces waste going to landfill.
- Ash waste produced from incinerators can. Also be used in the construction and road building industries.
Disadvantages:
- Encourages more waste as incinerator operators need to have a constant level of waste to keep fires burning.
- Only recovers 10% of the energy used.
- For every to me of rubbish burned, 2-3 tones of carbon dioxide are produced.
- Air pollution is a threat to local resident heavy metals and dioxins from incinerators pose a health (cancer) risk.
64
Waste management: Recycling
A more attractive proposition than landfill and incineration, recycling is the conversion of waste product into usable material. The recycling of glass, paper, metal, plastic, textiles and electronics is key component of modern waste management.
Britain has typically lagged behind its European neighbours such as Denmark and Germany who have viewed waste as an economic resource for decades.
Advantages:
- Reduces waste going to landfill.
- Organisations who recycle can be seen in a good light by customers.
- Avoids having to extract more materials from the earth e.g. aluminum recycling uses only 5% of the energy required compared to ore extraction.
- Reduces greenhouse gases.
- Recycling creates jobs (250,000 jobs across Europe in recycling).
- Garden waste can be sold by the council as compost.
Disadvantages:
- The purchase of recycling vehicles, bins and the construction of civic recycling centers is expensive.
- Difficult to provide recycling facilities in inner city areas (e.g. high rise flats with no gardens).
- Waste can be contaminated e.g. food waste in blue bins which can be costly and labour intensive to correct.
- Need large areas to store materials.
- Stockpiling or recycled materials can be a fire risk (blocks of paper and plastic).
- Recycling still uses energy.
- Paper and plastics can only be recycled a few times before material degradation prevents further reprocessing.
65
Waste management: Reducing and Eliminating Waste at Home - Food Waste
- Make lists before you go shopping and only buy what you need.
- Eat food with the skins on such (carrots, cucumber and potatoes).
- Plan dishes which use up leftover foods such as stews and soups.
- Rotate food in the fridge and consume before the use by date.
- Check your fridge is working at its optimum temp.
- Freeze leftovers and foods such as bread for toasting.
- Store food in air tight containers to prevent it going soft or bad.
- Donate excess food to charities such as food banks.
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Waste management: Reducing and Eliminating Waste at Home - Household Goods
- Avoid purchasing products with excess packaging.
- Use "bags for life" instead of plastic carrier bags.
- Buy products in containers that you can reuse e.g. glass jars.
- Use rechargeable batteries and long life fluorescent light bulbs.
- Avoid disposable razors, pens and lighters; choose refillable products.
- Avoid pump toothpaste - it is over packaged.
- Download music as mp3s instead of buying CDs.
- Give usable old clothes, toys and electrical goods to charities.
- Use old clothes as cleaning rags; old bedding as dust sheets.
- Use internet schemes such as "Freecycle" to swap products.
- Use eBay or Gumtree to sell electronic and unwanted products.
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Waste management: Reducing and Eliminating Waste at Home - Composting
Food scraps make up 20-30% of household waste, and much of this(tea bags, egg shells, vegetable peelings) could be composted. It enriches the soil, helps the soil retain moisture and it suppress plant diseases and pests. It also reduces the need for chemical fertilisers.
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Life cycle assessment
Life Cycle Assessment (or Life Cycle Analysis) is the investigation and evaluation of the environmental impacts of a given product or service, through its life cycle, from the design stage, through purchase and use to its disposal.
Part of the LCA which is now commonly used is the carbon footprint of a product or industry. This can be measured by undertaking a greenhouse gas emissions assessment.
Traditionally the linear economy has been followed in the UK, where goods are extracted, used and then disposed of in a landfill. The circular economy uses the LCA and attempts to produce no waste and pollution, by design or intention. It does require investment by industry, but can reduce resource costs, emissions in the long run.
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Waste legislation: International (inc. EU)
Key policies include:
- Polluter Pays Principle (also known as Extended Producer Responsibility in the EU) where the polluter is responsible for any clean up and compensation of pollution they generate. It can be difficult to pinpoint the exact source of pollution.
- Landfill Directive, to reduces d eliminate landfill waste.
- WEEE (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive) is an EU policy forcing member states to recycle at least 85%) of electrical waste by 2016.
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Waste legislation: National (Scottish Government)
Implementing landfill tax from the EU legislation. Establish the Zero Waste Scotland Policy which aims to:
- A target of 70% recycling and maximum 5% to landfill by 2050.
- From 2012 all commercial waste must be separated into different streams to assist recycling processes.
- Restrictions on inputs to energy from waste facilities.
- Landfill bans for specific waste types.
- Reducing the amount of food waste from food outlets, restaurants and shops, using the "Love Food Hate Waste" campaign. Restaurants are encouraged to give "doggy bags" for leftovers and supermarkets are encouraged to work with charities to reduce food waste.
- Introducing a 5p charge for all carrier bags sold.
In 1996, SEPARATE (Scottish Environmental Protection Agency) was set set up by the government to monitor pollution and environmental quality within air, water and land. They are publicly funded and issue licenses to anyone moving waste and can prosecute polluting offenders.
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Waste legislation: Local
Local authorities (councils) have a number of responsibility relating to waste management:
- Providing kerbside recycling bins and services to householders and organisations.
- Establishing food collection waste facilities.
- Providing uplifts for bulky goods.
- Increasing fines on illegal fly-tipping.
- Issuing fixed penalty notices (up to £80) for dropping litter.
- Education (with schools) to raise the profile of littering and recycling.
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Sustainability of water
The global demand for water is increasing year by year. This is due to:
- The worlds population is growing by around 80 million people each year.
- More water required for irrigation to produce more crops to feed extra mouths.
- Changes in lifestyles and eating habits in recent years which require more water e.g. demand for more meat based diets which consume far more water.
- Increased production of biofuels. Between 1000 and 4000 liters of water are needed to produce a single liter of biofuel.
- Energy demand is also growing, with implications for watered demand.
This is placing huge demand on water resources. Only 1% of all the water on earth is available for human use. 97% of water is seawater and the other 2% of freshwater locked up in ice caps and glaciers.
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Sustainability of water: Water Problems
Water security is capacity of a population to safeguard water supplies in order to sustain livelihoods, human well-being, socioeconomic development, and provide protection against water-borne disease and water-related disasters (floods and droughts). Much of the developing world at present does not have water security:
- 900 million people in the world lack access to safe water supplies.
- 85000 people die each year from water related diseases.
- Every minute a child dies of a water related disease.
- Almost 2 in 3 people who need safe drinking water survive on less than $2 a day.
- Millions of women spend several hours a day collecting water from distant, often polluted sources.
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In 2015 the United Nations made water security no. 6 on its sustainable development goals. By following, all countries should look to achieve:
- Access to safe and affordable drinking water for all.
- Access to adequate sanitation and hygiene for all, and to end open defecation.
- Improved water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and restricting the release of hazardous chemicals and materials into water supplies.
- Increased water-use efficiency.
- A reduction in the number of people suffering from water scarcity.
- The restoration of water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes.
- Increased cooperation and support for developing counties in water and sanitation.
These goals will not be easy to achieve, considering the levels of poverty some developing countries, especially in Africa, currently experience. Water security and poverty are directly related to each other.
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Water supply issues: Irrigation - 4 main methods
1. Surface. Where water is applied mainly using gravity e.g. paddy fields in SE Asia.
2. Sprinkler. Using a system of pipes and then spraying on to crops.
3. Drip/ trickle. Water drip slowly on the soil surface or directly onto the rot zone.
4. Subsurface. Watering crops through using buried plastic tubes to supply plant roots.
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Water supply issues: Irrigation - Advantages
- Significantly increases crop yields.
- Crops can be grown in dry season.
- Improves health (reduced malnutrition).
- Allows cash crops which generates money from exports (tobacco, cotton).
- Dams can generate HEP.
- Improved hygiene - bathing and hand washing.
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Water supply issues: Irrigation - Disadvantages
- Can cause salinisation where over watering brings toxic salts to the surface.
- Can deplete groundwater stores in aquifers (lowered water table).
- Dams and channels create habitat for mosquitoes to lay eggs (cause malaria).
- Costly process. Widens wealth gap between rich and poor farmers.
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Water supply issues: Desalination
Is a process that removes minerals from saline (sea) water. It is a practise which is being used in Middle Eastern countries (UAE, Saudi Arabia, Oman)to supply water for human use. It uses a process known as reverse osmosis, a purification method where salty water is passed through a semi-permeable membrane, under pressure, to remove ions, molecules, larger particles and to make it safe to drink.
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Water supply issues: Desalination - Advantages
- Provide, clean, healthy Waterford dry, arid countries with limited supplies.
- Improves health and hygiene.
- Desert countries have abundant solar energy supplies to power plants.
- Promotes tourism and recreation e.g. Dubai (98% of the city's water is from desalination).
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Water supply issues: Desalination - Disadvantages
- Desalination plants are very expensive to build.
- Energy intensive. 2 kilowatt hours of energy to produce 1m3 of fresh water.
- If energy supplied form fossil fuels can increase greenhouse gas emissions.
- Removes minerals such as calcium (required for human bones and growth).
- Water returned to theses after purification has increased minerals which can pollute ecosystems.
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Water in developed countries: Stages in water supply - Collection and Storage
Water can be obtained from:
- Groundwater/ aquifers. Underground rocks which hold water which can be extracted using wells and pumps.
- Rivers.
- Reservoirs. Artificially damming valleys to create large stores of water (usually with 3 months supply). This is the first stage in screening as large particles sink to the bottom of reservoirs.
A networked pipes supply water to areas of needs (e.g. towns).
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Water in developed countries: Stages in water supply - Screening
The removal of organic debris (branches or leaves).
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Water in developed countries: Stages in water supply - Water Treatment
Removal of smaller particles by processes such as:
- Flocculation. Adding chemicals (aluminium sulphate) so particles stick together and make them easier to remove.
- Filtering, through course and fine sand beds.
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Water in developed countries: Stages in water supply - Final Treatment
Adding small amounts of chlorine (less than one Milligan per litre) is added to kill any remaining bacteria.
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Water in developed countries: Wastewater treatment systems - Sewer Network
System of pipes and sewers carries wastewater and sewage from houses and industry to sewage treatment plants.
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Water in developed countries: Wastewater treatment systems - Screening
Large inappropriate items (e.g. nappies, sanitary items, cotton buds) are screened. The grit in waste water is also removed by sieving.
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Water in developed countries: Wastewater treatment systems - Primary Treatment
Solid waste is separated from wastewater using large settlement tanks, where solids (sludge) sinks to the bottom. Scrapers move the sludge towards the centre of the tanks where it can be extracted.
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Water in developed countries: Wastewater treatment systems - Secondary Treatment
Air is pumped into aeration tanks to encourage aerobic respiration, where "good" bacteria break down harmful bacteria in wastewater.
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Water in developed countries: Wastewater treatment systems - Final Treatment
In the final settlement tank, bacteria sink to the bottom, forming more sludge which is returned to the secondary treatment stage. The now clean water can be sand filtered and discharged into rivers.
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Water in developed countries: Wastewater treatment systems - Sludge Treatment
The removed sludge can be converted into agricultural fertilisers, or biogas fuel (by heating it with bacteria to produce methane), or dried into block called "cake" which can be power stations to make electricity.
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Water in developing countries: Diseases
- Water-borne, where drinking water is contaminated with sewage e.g. cholera.
- Water-washed, where polluted water causes inflammations of eyes and skin.
- Water-based, spread by parasites which live in water e.g. bilhazria which is spread by a worm parasite.
- Water-related, where vectors such as mosquitoes need water to live in or breed e.g. malaria, dengue fever.
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Water in developing countries: Water supplies
Clean water can be supplied in developing countries using the following:
1. Sinking wells and boreholes to supply clean water. These can be expensive and require investment (e.g. charities) to provide funding.
2. Separating water for use from humans and livestock which cause contamination, by fencing areas off or by building separate livestock troughs.
3. Using SODIS (solar water disinfection). Filling a sterilised PET plastic bottle with dirty water and leaving it outside for 6 hours in the sun - the UV Ray's and heat from the sun will kill off bacteria and pathogens and making it safe to drink.
4. Education schemes promote the boiling of water before use (although this requires firewood which promotes deforestation) and the provision of soap promotes hand washing before cooking or eating, increasing hygiene.
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Water in developing countries: Improving sanitation - Pit latrines
Installing pit latrines. Simple holes in the ground with a shelter above to protect from the elements. Locating away from rivers (at least 30m) helps avoid contamination. These are very cheap methods of keeping waste away from food and water supplies, although the waste can be difficult to remove and they can smell. These are used by over 2 billion people globally.
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Water in developing countries: Improving sanitation - Composting latrines
Are more expensive than pit latrines but are built structures with two sections which can be rotated when one side becomes full. Adding organic matter (leaves, sawdust) helps reduce the smell as can the addition of ventilation shafts. Removing the waste after a 6-8 month period provides fertiliser for farmland. Can serve families of more than 6 people for over 10 years, providing they are properly maintained.
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Water in developing countries: Improving sanitation - Integrated water supply and sanitation schemes
Known as WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) is a key public health issue, especially in many countries in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.
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Water conservation Methods: Domestic/ Household
- Check taps and pipes for leaks and drips.
- Install a water meter to help monitor usage and to spot water leaks.
- Install water-saving shower heads and low-flow faucet aerators.
- Install water-efficient, "low-flush" toilets which use 50% less water.
- Put plastic bottles in cisterns to cut down on water during flushing.
- Insulate water pipes to keep water warmer and to save energy.
- Take shorter showers and avoid installing power showers.
- Turn off the tap after setting your toothbrush.
- Use your dishwater and washing machine for full loads only.
- Install a water butt to collect run off from gutters from roofs.
- Plant drought-resistant lawns, shrubs and plants.
- Use mulch in gardens to reduce the need for watering.
- Don't run the hose while washing your car, use it on,y for rinsing.
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Water conservation Methods: Agriculture
- Install drip irrigation systems which deliver water directly to a plants roots, reducing the evaporation rates.
- Irrigation scheduling. Use technology such as rain sensors to allow irrigation systems to work in harmony with natural rainfall levels.
- Planting drought tolerant crops.
- Reinstalling ponds to capture water (also creates wildlife habitats).
- Capturing and recycling run-off water in ponds and lakes.
- Composting and mulching helps retain soil moisture levels.
- Organic farming has a lower water footprint.
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Water conservation Methods: Hospitality and Leisure
- Install water efficient showers, toilet systems (e.g. urinals) and fit aerators on all taps.
- Only use dishwasher so full load in restaurants.
- Install efficient technology in laundries and ensure loads are full.
- Replace boiler-based food steamers with boilerless technology.
- Use used (grey) water from baths and sinks for watering gardens.
- Regular maintenance of swimming pools of avoid leaks.
- Train hotel staff on water conservation measures.
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Water conservation Methods: Energy Generation
- Circulate water through cooling towers and then back in to generation pants for reheating. Known as closed cycle cooling.
- Equip cooling towers with overflow alarms
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Water conservation Methods: Manufacturing
- Conduct a water audit to determine actual levels of use.
- Reduce water pressure in pipes irk and flow regulators.
- Regular maintenance of all pipe work and valves.
- Replace water-cooled equipment with air-cooled equipment (e.g. air).
- Insulate and lag all piles, which also saves energy.
- Ensure all hoses and valves are equipped with shut-off nozzle.
- Reuse grey water on processes which don't require clean water.
- Share good practice on water conservation with other industries.
