Unit 3- Ethical Theories

Question 1

What are the 2 Branches of Ethical Theory and briefly explain them and give examples

Answer 1

Teleological Theory- Looks at the end result to determine morality. E.g. Utilitarianism

Deontological Theory- Looks at the action itself to determine morality. E.g. Kantian Ethics

Question 2

Complete the phrase: In Teleological Ethics Morality is

Answer 2

Determined by the consequences of actions

Question 3

Teleological Ethics see morality as a

Answer 3

means to an end

Question 4

Utilitarianism

Answer 4

Theory is saying that morality should be based on achieving happiness

Question 5

Principle of Utilitarianism

Answer 5

The greatest good for the greatest number

Question 6

Four Theses of Utilitarianism

Answer 6

Hedonism
Egoism
Consequentialism- right/wrong dependent of consequences
Universalism (related to Kant’s theory)

Question 7

Variations of Utilitarianism (2)

Answer 7

Act Utilitarianism- we are obligated to do the specific act that produces the greatest amount of happiness

Rule Utilitarianism- we should follow moral rules that, when acted upon, generally produce the greatest amount of happiness.

Question 8

How To Apply Utilitarian Principles

Answer 8

1. Determine what alternative actions/policies are available
2. For each alternative, estimate direct & indirect costs and benefits produced by the action for all persons
3. For each action, [benefits - costs] to determine the net utility of each action.​
4. Choose action with highest net utility- this is the ethical choice

Question 9

Critics of Utilitarianism

Answer 9

Critics say not all values can be measured.​

Response: monetary or other commonsense measures can measure everything.​

Critics say utilitarianism fails with rights and justice.​

Response: rule-utilitarianism can deal with rights and justice.

Question 10

Cost Benefit Analysis

Answer 10

,,,,,,

Question 11

Kantian Ethics

Answer 11

Right/Wrong is based on characteristics of action and not the end results

Question 12

Universalizability:

Answer 12

must be possible to will the principle of your action for everybody without inconsistency.

Question 13

Universalizability Principle

Answer 13

If act is wrong for one, it is wrong for all

Question 14

Deontological Doctrine

Answer 14

Not use people as a “means to an end”
Individual rights not to be sacrificed
We have an obligation to do right regardless of utility.

Question 15

What is a Right?

Answer 15

An Individual’s entitlement to something

Question 16

What are the kinds of rights

Answer 16

Legal: Entitlement that derives from legal system
Moral: Rights that all human beings everywhere possess by virtue of being human.

Question 17

The three kinds of Moral Rights

Answer 17

1. Negative rights- require others to leave us alone
2. Positive Rights- requires others to act positively on our behalf
3. Contractual or special rights- requires others to keep their agreements.

Question 18

General Info on Moral rights

Answer 18

1. Can be violated even when “no one is hurt”- Breaching privacy example
2. Provide people with autonomy and equality in the free pursuit of their interests
3. Provide a basis for justifying one’s actions and for invoking the protection/aid of others

Question 19

Contractual Rights

Answer 19

1. Created with specific agreements and conferred only on the parties involved.​
2. Require publicly accepted rules on what constitutes agreements and what obligations agreements impose.​
3. Underlie the special rights and duties imposed by accepting a position or role in an institution or organization.

Question 20

Kant and Moral Rights

Answer 20

Individuals generally must be left equally free to pursue their interests.​

Moral rights identify the specific interests individuals should be entitled to freely pursue. ​

An interest is important enough to raise to be a right if:​

a. we would not be willing to have everyone deprived of the freedom to pursue that interest​
b. the freedom to pursue that interest is needed to live as free and rational beings.​

Question 21

Kant’s Imperative

Answer 21

We must act only on reasons we would be willing to have anyone in a similar situation act on.​

Requires universalizability and reversibility.​

Side Note: Similar to questions: ​

“What if everyone did that?”​

“How would you like it if someone did that to you?”

Question 22

Kant’s Imperative (Second Version)

Answer 22

1. Don’t use people as a “means to an end”

2. Humans have a certain dignity that differentiates them form mere objects

Question 23

Kantism in Business

Answer 23

• Imperatives provide standards for making rules
• Emphasises the absolute value and dignity of individuals
• Stresses the importance on acting on the basis of right intentions

Question 24

Criticisms of Kant

Answer 24

1. Both versions of the categorical imperative are unclear.​
2. Rights can conflict and Kant’s theory cannot resolve such conflicts.​
3. Kant’s theory implies moral judgments that are mistaken.​

Question 25

Justice

Answer 25

Deals with fairness

Question 26

Aristotle Categorization of Justice

Answer 26

Distributive- distribution of benefits/burdens
Compensative- compensating persons for wrongs done to them
Retributive- punishing wrong doers

Question 27

Aristotle’s Principle of Distributive Justice

Answer 27

The aim is equality (treating like cases alike), which can be expressed in an equation: A’s Share of P = A’s share of Q
B’s share of P B’s share of Q

Basically, pay/reward= work/any factor that requires a reward
The output should be fair based on input

Question 28

Justifying features in Aristotle’s Distributive Justice (Q)

Answer 28

Ability
Effort- energy exerted, sacrifices made
Accomplishment-
Need- having a lack of resources

Question 29

Rawl’s Egalitarian Theory Principles

Answer 29

1. Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all.
2. Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both:
   a. to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, and
   b. attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.

Question 30

Libertarian Philosophy

Answer 30

Freedom from human constraint is necessarily good and all constraints imposed by others is necessarily evil except when needed to prevent the imposition of greater human constraints

Question 31

Robert Nozicks’ Libertarian Philosophy

Answer 31

1. The only moral right is the negative right to freedom
2. Right to freedom requires freedom of private property, freedom of contract, free markets, elimination of taxes to pay for social welfare programs.

Question 32

Difference between Rawls’s theory and Nozick’s theory ​

Answer 32

1. Historical principles- considers the founding principles behind the distribution of justice
2. Principles of Aristotle and Rawl are Patterned- Pattern is that a certain output is based on a certain input(Aristotle), and Equal reward for actions done (Rawl- Egalitarian Theory)

Question 33

Main Principles of Nozick’s Theory

Answer 33

1. Just transfer- good is redistributed to you in a legal and ethical manner. E.g Inheritance, money transfers etc.
2. Just original acquisition- you, who become the original owner of the good, acquire/purchase it in a legal and ethical manner.
3. Just rectification- Injustices are corrected and goods redistributed in an ethical manner

Question 34

Virtue in Business- Aristotle Theory of Moral Virtue

Answer 34

Virtues are habits that enable a person to live according to reason by habitually choosing the mean between extremes in actions and emotions​.

Question 35

Criticisms of Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics Theory

Answer 35

A primary problem with this theory is that people have varying definitions of what traits are considered virtuous.

Question 36

Other theories on Virtue

Answer 36

1. Aquinas​- virtues are habits that enable a person to live reasonably in this world and be united with God in the next​
2. MacIntyre​- virtues are dispositions that enable a person to achieve the good at which human “practices” aim​
3. Pincoffs​- virtues are dispositions we use when choosing between persons or potential future selves​

Question 37

Objections to Virtue Theories

Answer 37

“It is inconsistent with psychology which showed that behaviour is determined by the external situation, not moral character.​”

Response: moral character determines behaviour in a person’s familiar environment.​
Response: recent psychology shows behaviour is determined by one’s moral identity which includes one’s virtues and vices.

Question 38

Conscious​ Moral Decisions​

Answer 38

• Made when wrong/right is an unclear, more complex situation
• Is used in new, strange, or unusual situations for which the brain has no matching prototypes.​
• Evaluate the reasonableness of our intuitions, cultural beliefs, and the norms stored in our prototypes.​

Question 39

Unconscious Moral Decisions​

Answer 39

​- made when wrong/ right is clear

• Made by the brain’s “X-system” using stored prototypes to automatically and unconsciously identify what it perceives and what it should do.​
• Comprise most of our moral decisions.

Question 40

Compare and Contrast Utilitarianism and Kantianism

Answer 40

Utilitarianism Kantism

Morality based on end result of happiness

Morality Based on intrinsic features of Behaviour

Morality is a means to an end

                  treat the agents as                                                                                                                    ends (the vital reason for achieving                                                                                        the end) not as mere means 

Greatest good for the greatest number

Individual rights should not be given up for the masses. Trade off’s forbidden

Pursuit of Happiness

Pursuit of universal morality and equity