Unit 3 - Development Flashcards
1
Q
What is developmental psychology
A
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development throughout the lifespan
2
Q
What’s a cross-sectional study?
A
research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time
3
Q
what’s a longitudinal study?
A
research that follows and retests the same people over time
4
Q
What are teratogens
A
agents, such as chmicals and viruses that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
5
Q
what is fetal alchohol syndrome? (FAS)
A
physical and cognitive function deficits in children caused by their birth mother’s heavy drinking during pregnancy. In severe cases, symptoms include a small, out-of-proportion head and distinct facial features
6
Q
Define habituation
A
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain famililiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner
7
Q
Define maturation
A
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behaviour, relatively uninfluenced by experience
8
Q
what is the critical period?
A
an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development
9
Q
Define adolescene
A
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
10
Q
Define puberty
A
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person usually becomes capable of reproducing
11
Q
define menopause
A
the time of natural cession of menstration; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
12
Q
Define sex
A
the biologically influences charectaristics by which people define male, female, and intersex
13
Q
define gender
A
the attitudes, feelings and behaviours that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex
14
Q
define intersex
A
possessing male and female biological sexual charactaristics at birth
15
Q
define aggression
A
any physical or verbal behaviour intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
16
Q
define relational aggression
A
an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person’s relationship or social standing
17
Q
what are x chromosomes
A
the sex chromosomes found in females and males. Females typically have two x chromosomes; males typically have one. An x chromosome from each parent produces a female child
18
Q
what are y chromosomes
A
the sex chromosome typically found only in males. When paired with an x chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child
19
Q
what is testosterone
A
the most important male sex hormone. Males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of male sex characaristics during puberty
20
Q
what are estrogens
A
sex hormones, such as estradiol that contribute to female sex charactaristics and are secreted in greated amounts by females than males
21
Q
What is the ecological systems theory? What are the systems?
A
A theory of the social environments influence on human development, using five nested systems (Microsystem, mesosystem, ecosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem) ranging from direct to indirect influences
22
Q
What are primary sex charectaristics
A
the body structures such as ovaries and testes that make sexual reproduction possible
23
Q
Define stranger anxiety
A
The fear of strangers that infant commonly display beginning by about 8 months of age
24
Q
Define attachment
A
An emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers and showing distress on separation
25
Define imprinting
The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life
26
What is a strange situation?
A procedure for studying child caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child’s reactions are observed
27
Define secure attachment
Demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregivers return
28
Define insecure attachment, what are the two types
Demonstrated by infants who display a clinging, anxious attachment; an avoidant attachment that resists closeness; or a disorganized attachment with no consistent behaviour when separated from or reunited with caregivers
29
Define temperament
A persons characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
30
What is basic trust
According to Erik Erickson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive experiences with responsive caregivers
31
What is a self concept
All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question « who am I »
32
Define emerging adulthood
Period from about 18 to middle twenties, when many persons in prosperous Western Culture are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults
33
Define generalization
In classical conditioning, the tendency once a response has been conditioned for similar stimuli to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
34
Define discrimination
In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus
35
Define preparedness
A biological predisposition to learn associations, such as taste and nausea, that have survival value
36
Define operant conditioning
A type of learning in which a behaviour becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur it followed by a punisher
37
Define law of effect
In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box named after BF skinner) containing a bar or key an animal can manipulate to obtain food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking
38
Define reinforcement
In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behaviour it follows
39
Define shaping
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behaviour towards closer and closer approximations of the desired behaviour
40
Define discriminative stimulus
In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)
41
Define positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviour by presenting (or adding) a pleasurable stimulus m. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
42
Define negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviour by stopping or reducing (or taking away) an aversive stimulus. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.
43
Define primary reinforcer
An innately reinforcing stimulus such as one that satisfies a biological need
44
what are secondary sex charectaristics
nonreproductive sexual traits such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality and body hair
45
Define conditioned reinforcer
A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (also known as a secondary reinforcer)
46
What are reinforcement schedules? What are the types
A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
47
Define continuous reinforcement schedule, provide an example
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Ex: getting a bonus mark every time you raise your hand
48
Define partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule
Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
49
Define fixed-ratio schedule. Provide an example
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforced a response only after a specified number of responses
Ex: buy 9, get 10th free
50
Define variable ratio schedule. What is an example
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
Ex: slot machines, lotto tickets
51
Define fixed interval schedule. What is an example
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
Ex: pay checks being bi weekly
52
Define variable interval schedule. What’s an example
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
Ex: email, chat messages, pop quizzes
53
Define punishment
An event that tends to decrease the behaviour it follows
Can be positive or negative
54
Define instinctive drift
The tendency to learning behaviour to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns
55
Define cognitive map
A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. Ex: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
56
Define latent learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
57
Define insight learning
Solving problems through sudden insight; contrasts with strategy based solutions
58
Define observational learning
Learning by observing others.
Also called social learning
59
Define modeling
The process of observing and imitating a specific behaviour
60
Define mirror neurons
Neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brains mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy
61
Define pro social behaviour
Productive, constructive, helpful behaviour. The opposite of antisocial behaviour
62
Define antisocial behaviour
Negative, destructive, harmful behaviour. The opposite of prosocial behaviour
63
Define social clock
The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood and retirement
64
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65
Define learning
The process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information and behaviours.
66
Define habituation
The decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation
67
Define stimulus
Any event or situation that evokes a response
68
Define respondent behaviour
Behaviour that occurs as an automatic response to a stimuli
69
Define operant behaviour
Behaviour that operates on the environment, producing aconsequence
70
Define cognitive learning
The acquisition of mental information, where by observing events, by watching others or through language
71
Define classical conditioning
A type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimuli (a tone) comes to elicit behaviour (drooling) drooling in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)
72
Define behaviourism
The video that psychology should be an objective science that studies behaviour without reference to mental processes most research psychologist today agree with the former not the latter
73
Define neutral stimulus (NS)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.
74
Define unconditioned response (UCR)
In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (such as good in the mouth)
75
Define unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally— naturally and automatically— triggers an unconditioned response (UCR)
76
Define conditioned response (CR)
In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CR)
77
Define conditioned stimulus (CS)
In classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with unconditioned stimulus (UCS) comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)
78
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79
Define acquisition
In classical conditioning, the initial stage— when one links a neural stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response
80
Define higher-order conditioning
A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neural stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. Ex: animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone (also called second order conditioning)
81
Define extinction
In classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus (I operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced.)
82
What is spontaneous recovery
The reappearance, after a pause of a weakened conditioned response
83
What is spermache
the first ejaculation
84
Define social identity
The « we » aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to « who am I, » that comes from our group memberships
85
What is menarche
the first period
86
define a role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position defining how those in the position ought to behave
87
define a gender role
a set of expected behaviours, attitudes and traits for men and for women
88
define sexual aggression
any physical or verbal behaviour of a sexual nature that is unwanted or intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. Can also be expressed as sexual assault/harrassment
89
what is gender identity
our personal sense of being male, female, neither or some combination of male and female, regardless of whethere this identity matches our sex assigned at birth, and the social affiliation that may result from this identity
90
what is the social learning theory
the theory that we learn social behaviour by observing and imitating and being rewarded or punished
91
what is gender typing
the aquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
92
define androgeny
blending traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine psychological charactaristics
93
Define sexuality
our thoughtsm feelings and actions related to our physical attraction to another
94
define asexual
having no sexual attraction towards others
95
what is a social script
a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations
96
Define sexual orientation
according to the APA, "a person's sexual and emotional attraction to another person and the behaviour and/or soxial affiliation that may result from this attraction"
97
define cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating
98
what is a schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets informtion
99
define assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our exisiting schemas
100
define accommodation
adapting our current schemas to incoperate new information
101
what is the sensorimotor stage?
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to around 2 years) at which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
102
define object perminance
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not percieved
103
What is the preoperational stage
in piaget's theory, the stage (from around 2 to 6/7 years) at which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
104
define conservation
the principle (which piaget believed to be a a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume and number reatin the same despite changes in the forms of objects
105
define egocentrism
in piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
106
what is the concrete operational stage
in piaget's thepry, the stage of cognitive development (from around 7 to 11 years) at whih children can preform the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete (actual, physical) events
107
what is the formal operational stage
in piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning around age 12) at which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
108
define a scaffold
in Vygotsky's theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking
109
what is a theory of mind
people's ideas about their own and other's mental states--about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behaviours these might predict
110
Define language
our agreed-upon systems of spoke, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
111
define a phoneme
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
112
define a morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word
113
define grammar, what is it broken into?
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and undestand others. Semantics is the language' set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds and syntax is its set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences
114
Define universal grammar (UG)
humans' innate predisposition to understand the principles and rules that govern grammar in all languages
115
what is the babbling stage
the stage in speech development, beginning round 4 months, during which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds that are not all related to the household language
116
what is the one-word stage
the state in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
117
what is the two word stage
the stage in speeh development, beginning about age 2, during which a child speaks mostly in two-word sentences
118
what is telegraphic speech
the early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram-- "go car"-- using mostly nouns and verbs
119
Define aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)
120
Define Broca's area
a frontal lobe brain area usually in the left hemisphere that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech
121
define wernicke's area
a brain area usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression
122
what is linguistic determinism
Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think
123
what is linguistic relitivism
the idea that language influences the way we think
124
Define intimacy
in erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developemental task in young adulthood
125
Define descrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus
126
what's an operant chamber
in operant conditioning research, a chmber also known as a skinnner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer attached devices record the animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking
127
