Unit 3 Chapter 7 Flashcards
What is memory?
The process by which we recollect prior experiences and information and skills learned in the past.
What are the three kinds of memory?
- Episodic: specific events
- Semantic: facts, words, concepts
- Implicit: practiced skills; learned habits
What is encoding in the context of memory?
Translating information into a form in which it can be used.
What is the first stage of processing information?
Encoding.
What are the types of codes used in encoding?
- Visual codes: mental pictures
- Acoustic codes: auditory code
- Semantic codes: meaning
What is the second process of memory?
Storage
Involves the maintenance of encoded information.
What are the two types of rehearsal in the storage process?
- Maintenance rehearsal
- Elaborative rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating information, while elaborative rehearsal involves connecting new information to existing knowledge.
What are organizational systems in the context of memory?
Methods used to structure and categorize information to aid storage
These systems help in efficiently organizing memories for easier retrieval.
What are filing errors in memory?
Mistakes made in the organization of stored information
These errors can lead to difficulties in retrieval.
What is the third process of memory?
Retrieval
Involves locating stored information and returning it to conscious thought.
What is context-dependent memory?
Memory retrieval that is dependent on the place where information was encoded and stored
This means that being in the same location can trigger the recall of memories.
What is state-dependent memory?
Memories retrieved because of the individual’s mood at the time of encoding
This indicates that emotional states can influence memory recall.
What does ‘on the tip of the tongue’ refer to?
The feeling of knowing information but having difficulty retrieving it
This phenomenon often occurs when trying to recall a name or word.
What are the three stages of memory?
- Sensory Memory
- Short-Term Memory
- Long-Term Memory
These stages represent the flow of information processing in memory systems.
What is sensory memory?
Immediate, initial recordings of data that enter through our senses
Sensory memory allows for the brief retention of sensory information.
What is iconic memory?
Brief mental pictures
Iconic memory is a type of sensory memory specifically for visual stimuli.
Define eidetic memory.
Photographic memory; rare
Eidetic memory allows individuals to recall images with high precision after only a brief exposure.
What is echoic memory?
Mental traces of sound; lasts longer than iconic memory
Echoic memory allows for the retention of auditory information for a longer duration than visual information.
What is short-term memory often referred to as?
Working memory
Short-term memory is critical for temporarily holding information for processing.
How long does short-term memory typically last?
Fades after several seconds
Rehearsal is needed to retain information in short-term memory.
What is the primacy effect?
Recall of initial items
The primacy effect is a phenomenon observed in memory recall tasks.
What is the recency effect?
Recall of last items
The recency effect occurs when the most recently presented information is remembered better.
What is chunking in memory?
Grouping information into larger units
Chunking helps improve the capacity of short-term memory.
What does interference refer to in the context of memory?
When new information disrupts the recall of old information
Interference can lead to forgetting in both short-term and long-term memory.
What is long-term memory?
Storage of information for an extended period
Long-term memory can hold vast amounts of information without a known limit.
What is maintenance rehearsal?
Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory
Maintenance rehearsal is a basic technique for memorization.
Define elaborative rehearsal.
Connecting new information to existing knowledge
Elaborative rehearsal leads to better retention than simple repetition.
What are schemas?
Mental representations of knowledge
Schemas help organize and interpret information in long-term memory.
True or False: Long-term memory has a limit on the amount of information it can store.
False
Long-term memory is believed to have no practical limit.
What is forgetting?
Inability to use information in long-term memory (LTM)
Forgetting can occur at any stage of the memory process.
What can interfere with new learning?
Old learning
Old knowledge can hinder the acquisition of new information.
What are the different types of forgetting?
- Decay
- Repression
- Amnesia (Retrograde, Anterograde, Infantile)
These types describe various mechanisms through which forgetting can occur.
What is recognition in memory tasks?
Identify previously encountered information
Recognition is a basic memory task that involves recognizing familiar items.
What is recall in memory tasks?
Bring back information to mind
Recall is a process of retrieving information without cues.
What is relearning in memory tasks?
Things we once knew
Relearning involves revisiting previously learned information.
What is one method to improve memory?
Drill and Practice
Repeated practice can enhance retention and recall of information.
What does ‘retake to existing knowledge’ refer to in memory improvement?
Linking new information to what is already known
This strategy helps in better understanding and retention.
What is a technique for improving memory that involves forming unusual associations?
Use mnemonic devices
Mnemonic devices can aid in memorization by creating unique connections.
What is thinking?
The mental activity that is involved in the understanding, processing, and communicating of information
Thinking encompasses various cognitive processes.
What are the components that make thinking possible?
- Symbols
- Concepts
- Prototypes
These components are essential for organizing and processing information.
What are the three kinds of thinking?
- Convergent
- Divergent
- Metacognition
Each type of thinking serves a different purpose in cognitive processes.
Define convergent thinking.
A type of thinking that focuses on facts
It is often used in problem-solving situations where there is a single correct answer.
Define divergent thinking.
A type of thinking that emphasizes creativity
It allows for multiple possible solutions and ideas.
What is metacognition?
Thinking about thinking
It involves self-awareness and regulation of one’s own thought processes.
Fill in the blank: Thinking is made possible with _______.
[Symbols, Concepts, Prototypes]
These elements are fundamental to cognitive functioning.
What is the primary focus of effective thinking processes?
To enhance problem-solving and decision-making skills
Effective thinking processes can lead to more efficient outcomes.
True or False: Divergent thinking is primarily focused on arriving at a single correct answer.
False
Divergent thinking is about generating multiple possibilities and solutions.
What are two main approaches to problem solving?
Algorithms and heuristics
Algorithms are step-by-step procedures, while heuristics are general problem-solving strategies.
Define ‘algorithm’ in the context of problem solving.
A step-by-step procedure to solve a problem or complete a task
Algorithms guarantee a solution if followed correctly.
What is a heuristic?
A general problem-solving strategy that may not guarantee a solution
Heuristics are often used to simplify complex problems.
Name a problem-solving method that involves making random guesses until a solution is found.
Trial and Error
This method can be time-consuming and inefficient.
What does ‘difference reduction’ refer to in problem solving?
A strategy that focuses on reducing the difference between the current state and the desired goal state
It involves identifying the steps needed to reach the goal.
Explain ‘means-ends analysis’.
A problem-solving method that involves breaking down the problem into subgoals
This approach helps in managing complex problems by addressing smaller parts.
What is ‘working backwards’ in problem solving?
A technique where one starts from the desired goal and works back to the current situation
This method can help clarify the steps needed to achieve the goal.
How are analogies used in problem solving?
By comparing the current problem to a similar situation to find a solution
Analogies can provide insights based on past experiences.
List two obstacles to problem solving.
- Mental Set
- Functional Fixedness
These obstacles can limit creative thinking and problem-solving abilities.
What is ‘mental set’?
A tendency to approach problems in a fixed way based on past experiences
This can lead to overlooking alternative solutions.
Define ‘functional fixedness’.
A cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used
This can hinder innovative problem solving.
What is reasoning in the context of decision making?
Using information to reach conclusions
Reasoning is essential for making informed decisions.
What are the two main types of reasoning?
- Deductive reasoning
- Inductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning starts with general principles to reach specific conclusions, while inductive reasoning involves making generalizations based on specific observations.
Fill in the blank: Deductive reasoning starts with _______.
[general principles]
This type of reasoning moves from the general to the specific.
Fill in the blank: Inductive reasoning involves making generalizations based on _______.
[specific observations]
This reasoning moves from specific instances to broader generalizations.
What is Deductive Reasoning?
Reasoning from general premises to reach a specific conclusion
The conclusion is true if the premises are true.
What is a premise in deductive reasoning?
An idea or statement that provides basic information to draw conclusions
Premises form the foundation for deductive reasoning.
True or False: In deductive reasoning, the conclusion is always true if the premises are true.
True
Provide an example of deductive reasoning.
1.) South Korea is in Asia.
2.) The city of Seoul is in South Korea.
3.) Therefore, Seoul is in Asia.
This example illustrates valid deductive reasoning.
Provide an example of a false deductive reasoning argument.
1.) Countries that are near each other have similar languages.
2.) US and Mexico are near each other.
3.) Therefore, the US and Mexico have similar languages.
This conclusion is incorrect despite the premises being true.
What is Inductive Reasoning?
Reasoning from individual cases or particular facts to reach a general conclusion
Conclusions may be wrong even when premises are accurate.
Provide an example of inductive reasoning.
1.) Spain and Portugal are near each other and have similar languages.
This illustrates the process of drawing a general conclusion from specific observations.
