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MT 6317: CC1 > Unit 3: Carbohydrates (Part 1) > Flashcards

Unit 3: Carbohydrates (Part 1) Flashcards

1
Q

Carbohydrates are primary source of _______ for brain, erythrocytes, and retinal cells in humans

A

energy

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2
Q

T/F: Nervous tissue can concentrate/ store carbohydrates

A

FALSE

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3
Q

T/F: Glucose can cross the BBB

A

TRUE

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4
Q

T/F: RBC can produce glucose

A

FALSE

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5
Q

What is the role of glucose to RBC?

A

Maintains a healthy RBC and free from oxidative stress

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6
Q

Carbohydrates is the major food source and energy supply for the body and stored primarily as ________ in the ________ and _____________

A

Glycogen; Liver; Muscles

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7
Q

Carbohydrates is involved in two disease states:

A

Hyperglycemia and Hypoglycemia

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8
Q

Carbohydrates is important for the diagnosis of?

A

Diabetes mellitus

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9
Q

Carbohydrates are substances containing these 3 elements:

A

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen

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10
Q

There is 1 _________ per carbon

A

Water

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11
Q

All carbohydrates contain these two functional groups:

A

Carbonyl (C=O) and Hydroxyl (OH)

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12
Q

Carbohydrates are hydrates of ____________ because they contain _________

A

Carbon; Water

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13
Q

Carbohydrates can be classified based on these 4 structural properties:

A
  • Size or number of the base carbon chain
  • Location of the CO functional group
  • Number of sugar units
  • Stereochemistry of the compound
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14
Q

Based on size or number of base carbon chains, carbohydrates can be classified as:

A
  • Trioses (3C)
  • Tetroses (4C)
  • Pentoses (5C)
  • Hexoses (6C)
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15
Q

Examples of Pentose:

A

Ribose, Deoxyribose

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16
Q

Examples of Hexose:

A

Glucose, Fructose, Galactose

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17
Q

Smallest carbohydrate, a three-carbon compound

A

Glyceraldehyde

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18
Q

Based on the location of CO functional group, carbohydrates can be classified as:

A
  • Aldose
  • Ketose
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19
Q

In aldoses, the carbonyl group can be found at the:

A

Terminal

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20
Q

Functional group of aldose

A

Aldehyde group

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21
Q

In ketoses, the carbonyl group can be found at the:

A

Middle

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22
Q

Functional group of ketose

A

Ketone group

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23
Q

Two carbohydrate models

A
  • Fischer projection
  • Haworth projection
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24
Q

In Fischer projection, the aldehyde or ketone group can be found at:

A

the top

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25
Q

In Fischer projection, carbons are numbered starting at the:

A

Aldehyde or ketone head (at the top)

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26
Q

In Haworth projection, the compounds are represented in:

A

Cyclic form

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27
Q

Haworth projection is formed when the functional group reacts with ________ group on the same sugar to form a _______

A

Alcohol; Ring

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28
Q

Based on number of sugar units, carbohydrates can be classified as:

A
  • Monosaccharides
  • Disaccharides
  • Oligosaccharides
  • Polysaccharides
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29
Q

This is the simplest sugar, based on the number of units

A

Monosaccharides

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30
Q

T/F: Monosaccharides can be hydrolyzed

A

FALSE

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31
Q

Examples of monosaccharides

A
  • Triose
  • Tetrose
  • Pentose
  • Hexose (Glucose, Fructose, Galactose)
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32
Q

____________ are two monosaccharide units linked by ______________

A

Disaccharides: Glycosidic bonds

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33
Q

When two monosaccharides are joined together, water is ______________

A

released

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34
Q

If we want to split disaccharides, _________ is done

A

Hydrolysis

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35
Q

Water is _________ if disaccharides are split

A

consumed

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36
Q

Maltose is composed of these two monosaccharides

A

2 D-glucose units

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37
Q

Lactose is composed of these two monosaccharides

A

1 unit of glucose + 1 unit of galactose

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38
Q

Sucrose is composed of these two monosaccharides

A

1 unit of glucose + 1 unit of fructose

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39
Q

Sucrose is also known as:

A

Common table sugar

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40
Q

Lactose can be found in:

A

Milk

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41
Q

Oligosaccharides have ________ sugar units

A

3-10 sugar units

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42
Q

T/F: Oligosaccharides have few sugar units, composed of more than 10 sugar units.

A

FALSE, while it is true that it is composed of few sugar units. It is only composed of 3-10 sugar units.

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43
Q

Polysaccharides have ______ sugar units

A

More than 10 sugar units

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44
Q

Examples of Polysaccharides:

A

Glycogen and Starch

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45
Q

T/F: Central carbons of a carbohydrate are asymmetric

A

TRUE

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46
Q

This allows for spatial arrangement in the molecules

A

Chirality

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47
Q

This is the spatial arrangement in the molecules

A

Stereoisomers (Enantiomers)

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48
Q

Enantiomers are identified by:

A

Hydroxyl group

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49
Q

Enantiomers cannot be overlapped or ______________

A

Non-superimposable

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50
Q

Most sugars in humans are in which enantiomeric form?

A

D-form

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51
Q

Stereoisomers have the same:

A

Order and types of bonds

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52
Q

Stereoisomers have different:

A

Spatial arrangement and properties

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53
Q

If the OH group is found on the right of Fischer projection, it is a:

A

D-isomer

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54
Q

If the OH group is found on the left of Fischer projection, it is a:

A

L-isomer

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55
Q

Most ingested carbohydrates:

A

Polymers: Starch and Glycogen

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56
Q

Digestion starts here

A

Mouth

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57
Q

This enzyme is essential for digestion, and is produced by the salivary gland:

A

Salivary amylase

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58
Q

Starch is broken down into these two units with the help of amylase:

A

Disaccharide and Dextrin

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59
Q

_________ stops the action of amylase

A

Gastric juices

60
Q

T/F: Amylase is useful for the breakdown of carbohydrates

A

FALSE

61
Q

Around _____ of the starch has broken down once it enters the stomach

A

30%

62
Q

This enzyme help dissolve the solid food and break down carbohydrates into monosaccharides in the small intestine:

A

Pancreatic amylase

63
Q

_____________ is released by the ___________ which further hydrolyze or break down polymers

A

Maltase; intestinal mucosa

64
Q

_____________ is derived from the ____ which hydrolyzes sucrose to _________ and ___________

A

Sucrase; gut; Glucose and Fructose

65
Q

_____________ is derived from the ____ which hydrolyzes lactose to _________ and ___________

A

Lactase; gut; Glucose and Galactose

66
Q

Three essential digestive organs important for carbohydrate digestion:

A

Mouth, Intestines, Liver

67
Q

This is the only carbohydrate that can be directly used for energy or storage

A

Glucose

68
Q

T/F: Polysaccharides and disaccharides can be absorbed by the gut, stored in the liver, and enter the blood stream.

A

FALSE, they have to be converted to monosaccharides first

69
Q

3 Pathways of Glucose Metabolism

A
  • Embden Meyerhof (Parnas) Pathway
  • Hexose Monophosphate Shunt (Pentose pathway shunt)
  • Glycogenesis
70
Q

The ultimate goal of the cells where this pathway/shunt are happening is for it to be converted to _______ and ________

A

Carbon dioxide and Water

71
Q

During glucose metabolism, the cells obtains _______

A

ATP

72
Q

In the Embden Meyerhof Parnas Pathway, glucose is broken down into _______________

A

2 molecules of pyruvate

73
Q

10 steps of Glycolysis

A
  1. Glucose
  2. Glucose 6-phosphate
  3. Fructose 6-phosphate
  4. Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
  5. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
  6. 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
  7. 3-phosphoglycerate
  8. 2-phosphoglycerate
  9. Phosphoenolpyruvate
  10. Pyruvate
74
Q

Anaerobic glycolysis occurs in the:

A

Cytosol

75
Q

The aerobic pathway occurs at the

A

Mitochondria

76
Q

What is the conversion of other substrates to glucose

A

Gluconeogenesis

77
Q

Other substrates that can be used for gluconeogenesis:

A
  • Lipids
  • Fatty acids
  • Ketones
78
Q

For Embden Meyerhof Parnas Pathway:
- ATP used
- ATP produced
- Net ATP

A
  • 2 used
  • 4 produced
  • 2 net ATP
79
Q

This is the detour of glucose-6-phosphate from the glycolytic pathway

A

Hexose Monophosphate Shunt

80
Q

After going through the Hexose Monophosphate Shunt, glucose 6-phosphate becomes:

A

6-phosphogluconate (6-phosphogluconic acid)

81
Q

T/F: There is ATP production in Hexose Monophosphate Shunt

A

FALSE

82
Q

This is the pre-cursor of products used for biosynthetic reactions

A

6-phosphogluconate

83
Q

These are the byproducts of Hexose Monophosphate Shunt:

A
  • NADPH
  • 2G-SH
  • Ribose
84
Q

This has a reducing power; without this the cell membrane would easily be destroyed, eventually leading to cell death

A

NADPH

85
Q

This is an anti-oxidant which prevents oxidative stress from the action of free radicals

A

2G-SH (Glutathione disulfide)

86
Q

Disease wherein glucose 6-phosphate is not converted to 6-phosphoglycerate

A

G6PD deficiency

87
Q

This pathway is used only when the body’s energy requirements are being met

A

Glycogenesis pathway

88
Q

This enzyme is important for the conversion of glucose to glycogen

A

Glycogen synthase

89
Q

This enzyme is important for converting glycogen to glucose

A

Glucose 6-phosphatase

90
Q

This is the process of reverting glycogen back into glucose

A

Glycogenolysis

91
Q

T/F: Glycogenolysis can occur in sites other than the liver like the muscles.

A

FALSE, it can only occur in the liver

92
Q

This is the reason why Glycogenolysis can only occur in the liver

A

Glucose 6-phosphatase

93
Q

For brief fasting, which process can occur?

A

Glycogenolysis

94
Q

For fasting more than 24 hours, this process can occur:

A

Gluconeogenesis

95
Q

Metabolism of glucose molecule to pyruvate or lactate for production of energy

A

Glycolysis

96
Q

Formation of glucose-6-phosphate from noncarbohydrate sources

A

Gluconeogenesis

97
Q

Breakdown of glycogen to glucose for use as energy

A

Glycogenolysis

98
Q

Conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage

A

Glycogenesis

99
Q

Conversion of carbohydrates to fatty acids

A

Lipogenesis

100
Q

Decomposition of fat

A

Lipolysis

101
Q

Organs involved in carbohydrate metabolism:

A
  • Liver
  • Pancreas
  • Other endocrine glands
102
Q

Major hormones involved in carbohydrate metabolism:

A
  • Insulin
  • Glucagon
103
Q

Other hormones involved in carbohydrate metabolism

A
  • Somatostatin
  • Epinephrine
  • Cortisol
  • Thyroxine
  • Growth hormone
104
Q

Insulin is produced by the _______ cells of the ____________ in the _____________

A

Beta; islets of Langerhans; pancreas

105
Q

This is the primary hormone responsible for the entry of glucose into the cell

A

Insulin

106
Q

Insulin is a ______ agent

A

Hypoglycemic

107
Q

Glucagon is produced by the ________ cells of the __________ in the _________

A

Alpha; islets of Langerhans; pancreas

108
Q

This is released during stress and fasting states; and is a hyperglycemic agent

A

Glucagon

109
Q

Somatostatin is produced by the _______ cells of the _________ in the _______

A

Delta; islets of Langerhans; pancreas

110
Q

Somatostatin is also known as

A

Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone (GHIH)

111
Q

Somatostatin _______ plasma glucose

A

Increases

112
Q

This regulates insulin and glucagon

A

Somatostatin

113
Q

Epinephrine is produced by the ________

A

Adrenal medulla

114
Q

Epinephrine __________ blood glucose

A

Increases

115
Q

Epinephrine:
__________ insulin
__________ glycogenolysis
__________ lipolysis

A
  • Inhibits
  • Increases
  • Promotes
116
Q

Epinephrine is released in times of _______

A

Stress

117
Q

Cortisol is produced by the ____________ (specific)

A

Adrenal cortex in the Zona fasiculata

118
Q

Cortisol is stimulated by which hormone?

A

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

119
Q

RELATIONSHIP:
_____ cortisol = increased plasma glucose

A

High

120
Q

How is glucose increased by cortisol?

A

When the cortisol levels decreased, the pituitary glands release ACTH, which stimulates cortisol (increasing it), thus increasing glucose

121
Q

Cortisol:
________ intestinal entry of glucose into the cell
________ gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, glycogenolysis

A
  • Decrease
  • Increase
122
Q

Thyroxine is produced from the _______________

A

Thyroid gland

123
Q

The release of Thyroxine is stimulated by?

A

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

124
Q

Thyroxine _________ plasma glucose

A

Increases

125
Q

Thyroxine _________ glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, intestinal absorption of glucose

A

Increases

126
Q

Growth hormone is from __________________

A

Anterior pituitary gland

127
Q

Growth hormone _____________ plasma glucose

A

Increases

128
Q

Growth hormone:
___________ entry of glucose into the cells
___________ glycolysis

A
  • Decreases
  • Increases
129
Q

What stimulates growth hormone?

A

Low glucose levels

130
Q

This disease is characterized with high cortisol levels

A

Cushing’s syndrome

131
Q

This disease is characterized with low cortisol levels

A

Addison’s disease

132
Q

In hyperglycemia, blood sugar is _____________________ when fasting

A

Higher than 100 mg/dL

133
Q

For non-fasting, _________ mg/dL is considered hyperglycemic

A

140 mg/dL

134
Q

T/F: Hyperglycemia typically occurs before meal

A

FALSE, after meal

135
Q

In diabetics, hyperglycemia occurs when the cells of the body are less responsive to insulin. What type of diabetes?

A

Type 2 diabetes

136
Q

In diabetics, hyperglycemia occurs if there is lack of insulin in the blood stream. What type of diabetes?

A

Type 1 diabetes

137
Q

T/F: In hyperglycemia, the link between hyperglycemia and seizures is clear.

A

FALSE, it is not clear, still debatable

138
Q

In hypoglycemia, blood sugar is ___________________ when fasting

A

lower than 50 mg/dL

139
Q

Hypoglycemia typically occurs ______ meal.

A

Before

140
Q

T/F: Hypoglycemia can also occur after meal if one had a gastric bypass surgery.

A

TRUE

141
Q

This can occur if the body produces too much insulin (higher than body needs) after meal.

A

Postprandial hypoglycemia

142
Q

T/F: Hypoglycemia occurs when insulin is injected in right amounts.

A

FALSE; more than

143
Q

T/F: It’s clear that hypoglycemia can be one of trigger factors of seizures

A

TRUE

144
Q

Laboratory findings in Hyperglycemia:
_________ glucose in plasma and urine
_________ urine specific gravity
_________ serum and urine osmolality

A

Increased

145
Q

Laboratory findings in Hyperglycemia:
________ found in serum and urine (_______ and _______)
________ blood and urine pH (_________)
________ of electrolytes

A
  • Ketones; Ketonemia; Ketonuria
  • Decreased; acidosis
  • Imbalance

MT 6317: CC1 (2 decks)

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