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IB Environmental Science & Systems > Unit 3: Biodiversity & Conservation > Flashcards

Unit 3: Biodiversity & Conservation Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

natural selection

A

those more adapted thrive and reproduce while others don’t live long enough to have off spring

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2
Q

speciation

A

the formation of a new species when populations of a species become isolated and evolve differently

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3
Q

What physical barriers can cause speciation?

A

mountains ranges or ocean

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4
Q

What factors aside from physical barriers (ex: mountain ranges and ocean) isolate a species, leading to speciation?

A

their mating seasons are not synchronized or their flowers mature at different times

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5
Q

What do land bridges allow for?

A

allow species to invade new areas

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6
Q

How are land bridges temporarily formed?

A

the lowering of sea levels, ice age

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7
Q

What is an example of a land bridge that has formed between North and South America?

A

Central America (North and South America were separated for a long time)

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8
Q

plate tectonics

A

the study of the movement of the plates

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9
Q

What effect does continental drift have on biodiversity?

A

Biodiversity increases because the number of degree of separation of habitats increases, promoting speciation, and species arrive or evolve

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10
Q

What is a result of the creation of mountain ranges, etc. through plate tectonics?

A

new habitats/niches

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11
Q

r

A

biotic potential/how fast a species can reproduce

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12
Q

What are the three types of biodiversity?

A

species, genetic, habitat

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13
Q

keystone species

A

a species that contributes greatly to an ecosystem even though they may not dominate in numbers

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14
Q

indicator species

A

serves as an early warning that an ecosystem is declining

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15
Q

foundation species

A

plays a major role in shaping communities by creating land enhancing habitats in ways that benefit other species

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16
Q

What is an example of a foundation species?

A

elephants (push over/uproot trees which creates opportunities for growth of grasses which benefits grazing species)

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17
Q

What is an example of a keystone species?

A

birds (seed dispersal/pollination)

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18
Q

K

A

carrying capacity

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19
Q

What is species diversity based on?

A

species richness and species evenness

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20
Q

species richness

A

variety/number of species

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21
Q

species evenness

A

abundance/number of organisms within a species

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22
Q

genetic diversity

A

the range of genetic material present in a gene pool or population of a species

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23
Q

habitat diversity

A

the range of different habitats in a particular ecosystem/biome

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24
Q

Where would habitat diversity be high?

A

the tropics, tropical rainforests

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25
Q

Where would habitat diversity be low?

A

near the poles, tundra

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26
Q

What are three advantages of high biodiversity?

A
  1. a complex system tends to be more resilient and stable
  2. higher genetic diversity leads to resistance to disease
  3. nutrient cycling is increased by deep rooted plants (deep roots bring nutrients to the surface, making them available to other plants)
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27
Q

What are three cases in which high biodiversity does not equate to having a healthy ecosystem?

A
  1. diversity could be the result of habitat fragmentation/degradation (species richness due to pioneer species invading bare area after a human disturbance)
  2. different plant species make managing grazing difficult (sheep and goats are selective in the grass species they consume)
  3. some stable communities rely on few producers (ex: grasslands)
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28
Q

When comparing two similar ecosystems/communities, what could low biodiversity indicate?

A

pollution, eutrophication, recent colonization of a site

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29
Q

eutrophication

A

a natural process that results from the accumulation of nutrients in lakes or other bodies of water, which leads to the excessive development of certain types of algae

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30
Q

Why is it important to repeat investigations of diversity in the same community or ecosystem?

A

to know if change is a natural process due to succession or due to impact of human activity (increase/decrease in biodiversity would tell us if conversation efforts are successful or not)

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31
Q

hotspot

A

region with a high level of biodiversity (have an unusually high number of endemic species) that is under threat from human activities

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32
Q

endemic species

A

those only found in that place

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33
Q

How many hotspots are there in the world?

A

about 30

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34
Q

How many tropical rainforest hotspots are there?

A

about 10

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35
Q

Where do hotspots tend to be?

A

near the tropics (there are fewer limiting factors in lower latitudes)

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36
Q

How much land surface do hotspots cover?

A

2.3%

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37
Q

At least how many endemic plant species do hotspots contain?

A

1,500 (Atlantic forest in Brazil contains about 8,000 endemic plant species, Coastal forests of Eastern Africa contain about 1,750)

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38
Q

What do hotspots tend to have nearby?

A

large human populations

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39
Q

What are three reasons critics say hotspots are misleading?

A
  1. focus on vascular plants and ignore animals (don’t represent species diversity/richness)
  2. do not consider genetic diversity
  3. do not consider value of services (ex: water resources)
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40
Q

How many plates are there world wide?

A

9 major plates and 15 minor plates (numbers fluctuate, so some might say 10 major plates and a variety of minor plates)

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41
Q

What are the three causes of plate motion?

A
  1. convection in the mantle (heat driven)
  2. ridge push (gravitational force at the spreading ridges)
  3. slab pull (gravitational force in subduction zones)
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42
Q

convection currents

A

hot material rises, cool dense material sinks

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43
Q

Pangaea

A

the landmass that existed when all 7 continents were once connected

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44
Q

What causes thermal convection?

A

uneven distribution of heat within the Earth

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45
Q

What is the main driving force for plate movement?

A

convection in the mantle

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46
Q

divergent boundaries

A

two plates move apart

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47
Q

What are divergent boundaries also called?

A

spreading centers

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48
Q

convergent boundaries

A

two plates move together

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49
Q

transform fault boundaries

A

two plates grind past each other (without the production or destruction of the lithosphere)

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50
Q

What do divergent boundaries create?

A

rift valleys (land/ocean) and mid-ocean ridges (ocean)

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51
Q

seafloor spreading

A

a process in which new seafloor (oceanic lithosphere) is formed through the spreading of ocean ridges to make room for rocks that are being forced up from inside the planet

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52
Q

Mid Atlantic Ridge

A

a mountain range running 10,000 miles across the ocean floor

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53
Q

oceanic ridge

A

continuous elevated zones on the ocean floor (rifts at the crest of ridges represent divergent boundaries) where seafloor spreading takes place

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54
Q

rift valleys

A

lowland regions that form at divergent boundaries

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55
Q

magma

A

molten rock that escapes from the mantle

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56
Q

What is the average spreading rate of divergent boundaries?

A

5 cm per year

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57
Q

What do convergent boundaries create?

A

volcanoes, trenches, island arcs, mountains

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58
Q

What happens to the oceanic plate when an oceanic plate and a continental plate converge?

A

The denser, oceanic slab sinks into the asthenosphere

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59
Q

What do oceanic and continental convergent boundaries create?

A

continental volcanic arcs, trenches

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60
Q

continental volcanic arcs

A

form in part by volcanic activity caused by the subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath the continent

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61
Q

volcanic island arcs

A

form as volcanoes emerge from the sea

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62
Q

What happens when two oceanic plates converge?

A

the one that is more dense descends beneath the other

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63
Q

What do oceanic and oceanic convergent boundaries create?

A

volcanoes on the ocean floor, trenches

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64
Q

subduction zone

A

a collision between two of Earth’s plates, where one oceanic plate is forced down into the mantle beneath the second plate

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65
Q

What do continental and continental convergent boundaries create?

A

mountain ranges

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66
Q

How are trenches formed?

A

formed when one tectonic plate slides beneath another

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67
Q

What do movements along transform boundaries cause?

A

earthquakes

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68
Q

What do most transform fault boundaries connect (ocean-ocean plate boundaries)?

A

segments of mid-ocean ridges

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69
Q

lithosphere

A

comprise of plates, consisting of the crust and upper mantle

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70
Q

Ring of Fire

A

a massive chain of volcanoes along the Pacific Ocean

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71
Q

What four factors help maintain biodiversity?

A
  1. complexity of the ecosystem
  2. stage of succession
  3. limiting factors
  4. inertia/persistence
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72
Q

resilience

A

ability of an ecosystem to come back

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73
Q

inertia/persistence

A

ability of ecosystem to survive

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74
Q

Why is a system more resilient if it is more complex?

A

a system is more resilient if it is more complex because if one type of prey/food source/predator is lost, other species can fill the gaps left

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75
Q

Why are communities in the early stages of succession more vulnerable?

A

species diversity increases until a climax community is reached when the species composition is stable, so communities undergoing succession are more vulnerable than older ones which are more resilient/stable

76
Q

What is an example of a persistent biome?

A

rainforest (hard to destroy because there are so many species, but if it does die it is too complex to recover, so the rainforest is not resilient)

77
Q

What is an example of a resilient biome?

A

grassland (one species so that species could get sick and die easily so the grassland is not persistent, but it can easily come back so it is resilient)

78
Q

What 6 factors lead to a loss of biodiversity?

A
  1. natural hazards
  2. habitat fragmentation
  3. pollution
  4. invasive species
  5. spread of disease
  6. agricultural practices
79
Q

What do natural hazards lead to?

A

loss of habitat

80
Q

How do humans cause similar problems to natural hazards?

A

humans kill animal/destroy habitats

81
Q

habitat fragmentation

A

when parts of a habitat are destroyed, leaving behind smaller unconnected areas that behave like islands

82
Q

What are the fragmented habitats typically divided by?

A

roads, power lines, fences, etc.

83
Q

What causes pollution?

A

human activity

84
Q

Why have humans historically attempted to introduce non-native species?

A

pest control

85
Q

What is an example of a non-native species that led to positive effects?

A

potatoes from Europe to America

86
Q

What is an example of a non-native species that has led to negative effects?

A

cane toads

87
Q

How does disease spread in more concentrated populations?

A

diseases spreads faster

88
Q

How do humans purposefully reduce biodiversity?

A

agricultural practices

89
Q

monoculture

A

the cultivation of a single crop in a given area

90
Q

What percent of the animals that have ever lived now extinct?

A

over 99%

91
Q

How many years ago was the Ordovician extinction?

A

440 million years ago

92
Q

What was the Ordovician extinction?

A

volcanic rock that was worn down by water/wind reacted with and absorbed CO2, decreasing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere, causing temperatures to drop; water was then locked away as ice, causing ocean levels to drop and shallow seas to drain

93
Q

What percent of species was lost as a result of the Ordovician extinction?

A

86%

94
Q

How many years ago was the Devonian extinction?

A

364 million years ago

95
Q

What was the Devonian extinction?

A

the land was colonized by plants and these plants absorbed enough CO2 to create another round of global cooling, changing soil, causing nutrients to wash into the ocean, creating enormous amounts of algae; the algae sucked up oxygen, choking about 50% of the marine population to death

96
Q

How many years ago was the Permian extinction?

A

251 million years ago

97
Q

What was the Permian extinction?

A

billions of tonnes of volcanic gases destroyed the ozone layer, increasing ocean temperatures and causing acid rain to fall all over the planet

98
Q

What percent of species was lost as a result of the Permian extinction?

A

70% land species, 95% ocean species

99
Q

What was the Triassic extinction?

A

a volcanic rift opened in the middle of the planet, splitting America and Europe/Africa, creating the Atlantic Ocean; the volcanoes in the volcanic rift spewed out CO2, increasing temperatures around the planet

100
Q

What percent of species was lost as a result of the Triassic extinction?

A

80%

101
Q

How many years ago was the Triassic extinction?

A

200 million years ago

102
Q

How many years ago was the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction?

A

65 million years ago

103
Q

What was the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction?

A

an asteroid crashed into the Earth and the impact shot million of tonnes of dust into the atmosphere, blocking sunlight, and spelling an end to all large dinosaurs

104
Q

What is the Holocene extinction?

A

caused by humans; CO2 levels are rising (climate change), and humans have exterminated hundreds of species by hunting, fishing, habitat destruction, and pollution

105
Q

How many mass extinctions have occurred?

A

5, but scientists believe we are in the middle of a 6th

106
Q

How many species are there estimated to be?

A

7 million

107
Q

How many of the estimated 7 million species have been described or named?

A

1.4-1.8 million

108
Q

What percent of identified species are in the tropics?

A

66%

109
Q

What percent of tropical forests have been cleared by humans?

A

50%

110
Q

What are the three general patterns of population distribution?

A

clumping, uniform distribution, random distribution

111
Q

clumping

A

population is distributed in clusters

112
Q

uniform distribution

A

population is evenly spaced

113
Q

random distribution

A

population is randomly spaced

114
Q

What are four reasons populations live in “clumps”?

A
  1. resources vary greatly from one place to the next
  2. living in groups provides protection
  3. living in packs gives predators a better chance
  4. some species form temporary groups while raising offspring
115
Q

allelopathy

A

the release by a plant of a toxin to suppress growth of nearby competing plants, often resulting in uniform distribution

116
Q

What is an example of random distribution?

A

the seeds of a plant blow in the wind and grow where they land

117
Q

locally extinct

A

a species is no longer found in an area it once inhabited but it is still found somewhere else in the world

118
Q

ecologically extinct

A

when so few members of a species are left that the species no longer plays its ecological role

119
Q

globally/biologically extinct

A

a species is no longer found on the Earth

120
Q

What is an example of an organism that is globally/biologically extinct?

A

mammoth, dodo, saber tooth tiger, passenger pigeon

121
Q

background extinction rate

A

the natural extinction rate of all species

122
Q

What has been the cause of most mass extinctions?

A

rapid change in climate caused by a natural disaster

123
Q

mass extinction

A

spike in extinction rate

124
Q

How many times larger is the background extinction rate today than “usual”?

A

100 times larger

125
Q

What is the background extinction rate based on?

A

fossil record

126
Q

Where is the background extinction rate greater?

A

hotspots

127
Q

What are four ways humans cause ecosystem stress?

A
  1. transform the environment
  2. overexploit resources/species
  3. introduce alien/invasive species
  4. pollute the environment
128
Q

weedy species

A

species that do well in the environments that we create

129
Q

What percent of plants/animals have gone extinct between 1905-2015?

A

25%

130
Q

endangered

A

likely to go extinct in the near future

131
Q

flagship species

A

a species selected to act as an ambassador, icon, or symbol for a defined habitat, issue, campaign, or environmental cause (ex: panda)

132
Q

What factors make a species prone to extinction?

A
  1. narrow geographical range
  2. small population size/low genetic diversity
  3. low population density (production)
  4. few populations of the species
  5. a large body (per organism within a species)
  6. low reproductive potential
  7. seasonal migrants
  8. poor dispersers
  9. specialized feeders/niche requirements (specialists)
  10. edible to humans
  11. island organisms
133
Q

How does narrow geographical range make a species prone to extinction?

A

if a species only lives in one specific habitat and that habitat is destroyed, the species often becomes geographically extinct

134
Q

How does a small population size/low genetic diversity make a species prone to extinction?

A

a smaller population has a smaller genetic diversity and is less resilient to change, and cannot adapt well to change; a smaller population also suffers from interbreeding, resulting in the extinction of the remaining population

135
Q

How does low population density make a species prone to extinction?

A

if an individual of a species requires a large territory/range, it becomes more difficult to find/breed with other individuals of the same species; habitat fragmentation often makes this worse

136
Q

How does having few populations of a species make the species prone to extinction?

A

if there are only one or two populations left of a species, then that is there only chance of survival

137
Q

How does having a large body (organism) make a species prone to extinction?

A

only 10% of energy is passed on to the next trophic level and 90% is lost to the environment, so large top predators are rare; these species also compete with humans for food, may be a danger to humans, and a re hunted for sport

138
Q

How does having a low (r) reproductive potential make a species prone to extinction?

A

slow/infrequent reproduction means the population takes a long time to recover

139
Q

How does migrating seasonally make a species prone to extinction?

A

migrating is dangerous/risky (habitat fragmentation makes migrating more challenging), the species requires 2 habitats to stay intact

140
Q

How are species that are poor dispersers prone to extinction?

A

species that cannot easily move to new habitats are in trouble because climate change resulting in biome shift may mean the species dies out before it can move (ex: plants)

141
Q

How are specialists prone to extinction?

A

specialists rely on constant conditions, change happens often

142
Q

Why are island organisms particularly prone to extinction?

A
  1. populations tend to be small
  2. islands have a high degree of endemic species
  3. low genetic diversity
  4. islands tend to be vulnerable to the introduction of non-native species to which they have no defense mechanism
143
Q

minimum viable population size

A

the population size needed for a species to survive in the wild

144
Q

What factors influence extinction rates on an island?

A

size of island and distance from shore

145
Q

What is considered the absolute minimum viable population size for large carnivores?

A

500

146
Q

What five factors determine the minimum viable population size of a species?

A
  1. genetic diversity
  2. r
  3. mortality rate
  4. growth rate
  5. current threats
147
Q

What are the 8 Red List factors for conservation status?

A
  1. numbers
    2 distribution and geographic range
  2. habitat fragmentation and quality of habitat
  3. degree of specialization
  4. reproductive potential
  5. behavior
  6. trophic level
  7. probability of extinction
148
Q

What are the two approaches to conservation?

A

species-based approach, habitat-based approach

149
Q

What are five examples of species-based conservation?

A
  1. CITES (the Conservation on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)
  2. Captive breeding and zoos
  3. Botanical gardens and seed banks
  4. Flagship species
  5. Keystone species
150
Q

What is CITES?

A

an international agreement between governments to address the endangerment of species due to international trade

151
Q

Why is it difficult to reintroduce a species into the wild after the species has been bred in captivity?

A

programs to reintroduce populations are expensive and few are successful, and if the program is not successful it can be seen as a waste of money, poorly run, or unethical

152
Q

In what case is it impossible to reintroduce a species to its native habitat?

A

the habitat has been destroyed

153
Q

In addition to growing plants, what is the purpose of botanical gardens?

A

identify, classify, carry out research, education, and conservation

154
Q

Approximately how many botanical gardens are there around the world?

A

1500

155
Q

What are seed banks?

A

where seeds are stored, frozen, and dry for many years

156
Q

What are the disadvantages of flagship species?

A

they take priority over other species, if they become extinct the message is that we have failed, they may be in conflict with local peoples

157
Q

Why are flagship species sometimes referred to as umbrella species?

A

conservationists use umbrella species to gain support and other species who share the species’s habitat are also protected under its “umbrella”

158
Q

Where were many protected areas or nature reserves set up in the past?

A

early reserves simply put on unwanted or degraded land, which may not have been large enough or appropriate for the needs of the species they are aiming to protect

159
Q

What is the focus of UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere programme (MAB)?

A

to promote sustainability and conservation by creating 480 reserves in over 100 countries

160
Q

What is a biosphere reserve?

A

a protected area for the conservation of wildlife, plant, and animal resources that satisfies human needs as well

161
Q

What is an example of habitat-based conservation?

A

designing protected areas

162
Q

What is the consensus of the SLOSS (single large or several small) debate?

A

large or small will depend on the size and requirements of the species that the reserve is there to protect

163
Q

What are some advantages of several small (SS) reserves?

A

provide a greater range of habitats, more populations of rare species, danger of a natural disaster wiping out the reserve and its inhabitants is reduces as some reserves may escape the damage

164
Q

What are some advantages of single large (SL) reserves?

A

minimizes edge effects, provides habitats for more species, contains sufficient numbers of a large wide-ranging species - top carnivores

165
Q

ecotones

A

where two habitats meet and there is a change near the boundary

166
Q

Where do edge effects occur?

A

ecotones

167
Q

What are corridors?

A

strips of protected land that link reserves

168
Q

What do corridors allow for?

A

allow for seasonal migration and increase genetic diversity

169
Q

What is a buffer zone?

A

the transitional zone around the core reserve

170
Q

Do circular or long thin reserves have a larger edge effect?

A

long thin reserves

171
Q

intrinsic value

A

value based on existence, regardless of usefulness to humans

172
Q

instrumental value

A

ecological or economic service, human value

173
Q

What are the two types of instrumental value?

A

use value and non-use value

174
Q

What are examples of use value?

A

jobs, food, medicines, pest control, nutrient recycling

175
Q

What are example of non-use value?

A

satisfaction of knowing it exists, aesthetic value, bequest (protect for future generations)

176
Q

What are 2 example of direct values found in biodiversity?

A
  1. food sources
  2. natural products
177
Q

What are 9 examples of indirect values found in biodiversity?

A
  1. environmental services
  2. educational services
  3. biological control agents
  4. gene pools
  5. future potential use
  6. human health
  7. human rights
  8. ecotourism
  9. ethical/intrinsic value
178
Q

conservation biology

A

sustainable use and management of resources

179
Q

preservation biology

A

attempts to exclude human activity in areas were humans have not yet encroached

180
Q

What is an IGO?

A

intergovernmental organization composed of and answering to a group of member states (countries), also called international organizations

181
Q

What are two examples of IGOs?

A

the UN, IPCC

182
Q

What is a GO?

A

governmental organization part of and funded by a national government, highly bureaucratic, mostly do research, regulation, monitoring, and control activities

183
Q

What are two examples of GOs?

A

EPA, Environmental Protection Department of China

184
Q

What is an NGO?

A

non-governmental organization that is not for profit, and can be run by international or local and funded by altruists and subscriptions

185
Q

What are two examples of NGOs?

A

Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace

IB Environmental Science & Systems (7 decks)

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