Unit 3 AOS 2 - Learning & Memory Flashcards
What is classical conditioning?
A passive form of learning where the learning is unconscious and involuntary.
What is the NS?
The neutral stimulus, a stimulus that doesn’t produce any relevant response.
What are the UCS and UCR?
The unconditioned stimulus (a stimulus that produces a naturally occurring response) produces the unconditioned response (an unlearned, innate response).
What are the CS and CR?
The conditioned stimulus (a stimulus that produces a response after learning has occurred) produces the conditioned response (a response that occurs after learning has taken place).
What are the three stages of classical conditioning?
Before conditioning
During conditioning
After conditioning
What occurs before conditioning?
The NS produces no relevant response, while the UCS produces the UCR.
What occurs during conditioning?
The NS is introduced, immediately followed by the UCS, which produces the UCR. This occurs repeatedly to form an association between the NS and the UCR.
What occurs after conditioning?
The NS becomes the CS, which on its own can produce the UCR, which has now become the CR.
What is extinction?
The process of losing a CR by repeatedly exposing the UCS without the CS.
What is stimulus generalisation?
A CR occurs in a lesser fashion when exposed to a similar stimulus to the CS.
What is stimulus discrimination?
Not having a CR to similar stimuli.
What is spontaneous recovery?
The sudden reappearance of a CR to a CS after a period of extinction.
What is operant conditioning?
A conscious and voluntary form of learning.
What are the three stages of operant conditioning?
Antecedent
Behaviour
Consequence
What is the antecedent?
The environment or stimulus that prompts the learner to choose a behaviour.
What is behaviour?
The decision and action the learner makes.
What are the two forms of consequence?
Reinforcers (More likely to repeat the behaviour).
Punishments (Less likely to repeat the behaviour).
What are the reinforcement examples?
Positive Reinforcement - Something desired is given to the individual.
Negative Reinforcement - Something unpleasant is taken away.
What are punishment examples?
Positive Punishment - Something unpleasant is applied.
Negative Punishment (Response Cost) - Something pleasant is taken away.
What are the requirements of a punishment?
It needs to occur immediately, and it needs to fit the crime - it cannot be too harsh or too soft.
A limitation of punishment is that it only teaches the learner what is wrong, not what is right.
What is observational learning?
An active form of learning which primarily occurs in children, through the act of watching and modelling behaviour. Learnt behaviours may appear immediately or be latent (be learnt, but only displayed later).
What does ARRMR stand for?
The stages of observational learning;
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
Reinforcement
Who is the model?
The model is the individual displaying the behaviour that the learner copies.
Outline attention.
The learner actively watches the behaviour of the model.
Outline retention.
The learner makes a mental representation of the behaviour.
Outline reproduction.
The learner must have the physical and mental capabilities to repeat the behaviour.
Outline motivation.
The learner must have the desire to reproduce the behaviour. They may be influenced by the model (idolizing). Motivations can either be intrinsic (from within) or extrinsic (external).
Outline reinforcement.
The consequences bestowed upon the learner and model. When the model is reinforced, the learner is vicariously reinforced, as this makes them more likely to want to copy the behaviour. The same goes for punishment. Consequences toward the learner are direct, while consequences toward the model are indirect.
What is memory?
The storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning.
What is encoding?
The process of converting information into a storeable form.
What is storage?
The retaining of memory information over time.
What is retrieval?
The locating and recovering of stored information when needed so that it can be used.
What are the three levels of memory?
Sensory memory
Short-term memory (STM)
Long-term memory (LTM)
Where do the three stages of memory fit into?
The Atkinson Shiffrin Multi-store model of memory.
What occurs in sensory memory?
An unlimited capacity of information is received. Iconic information (light) has a duration of 0.2 to 0.4 seconds, while echoic information (sound) has a duration of up to 4 seconds. Most of this information is forgotten, only what is paid attention to moves into STM.
What occurs in STM?
This is also known as working memory, as it is where information can be actively manipulated. The duration of information in STM is up to 30 seconds and has a capacity of 7 +/- 2 pieces of information. Information that is not encoded will be lost.
What is displacement?
The kicking out of the oldest piece of information in STM to make room for new information. The capacity of STM can be improved by chunking information together, to make room for new information.
How can STM’s duration be improved?
Maintenance rehearsal - Repeating the information. Each repetition restarts the 30-second duration.
Elaborative rehearsal - Making meaning from the information, This also improves encoding.
What occurs in LTM?
LTM is the storage centre for memory. Information that is encoded goes to LTM, which has an unlimited capacity and unlimited duration. Retrieving information involves pulling information out of LTM back into STM.
What is a multimodal system of learning?
A holistic form of learning utilised by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.
How is Indigenous learning holistic?
Family and kin learn from each other in a community. Learning is not separated into subjects, connections between concepts are highlighted.
What are kin?
The extended family throughout Country, aren’t specifically blood relatives. Individuals will have multiple mothers, fathers, siblings etc. Kinship is extended to plants, animals and landforms.
What is Country?
The connection of Aboriginal peoples to their place of birth, including the land, waterways, landforms and kin.
How is knowledge developed?
Communities working together.
Culture.
Day-to-day living and survival.
Spiritual and ancestral knowledge.
Highly interconnected information.
Patterning the learning throughout Country.
How is the information passed down generationally?
Information is passed from elders to children, however, not all information is shared with everyone. Certain information is passed on to certain people, which aids in keeping the knowledge accurate.
What are the 8 Aboriginal ways of learning?
Story-sharing
Learning maps
Land connections
Community links
Non-verbal (e.g. dance)
Symbols + Images
Non-linear (interconnectedness)
Deconstruct / Reconstruct
Outline the branches of LTM.
Explicit memory
- Semantic memory
- Episodic memory
Implicit memory
- Procedural memory
- Classically conditioned memory*
*Classically conditioned memory
- Emotional
- Reflexive
What are explicit memories?
Information that can be consciously recalled.
What are semantic memories?
Facts.
What are episodic memories?
Personally relevant memories of experiences.
What are implicit memories?
Information that is unconsciously recalled and reflexive.
What are procedural memories?
‘How to’ information (e.g. riding a bike).
What are “classically conditioned” emotional memories?
The emotional information associated with particular memories.
What are “classically conditioned” reflexive memories?
Motor reflexes (e.g. blinking).
What are the brain regions associated with memory?
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Neocortex
Basal Ganglia
Cerebellum
Relate the brain regions to episodic memory.
Episodic memories are encoded and consolidated by the hippocampus, and stored in the neocortex. They are retrieved by the hippocampus, or the neocortex in the case that the memories have been heavily consolidated.
Relate the brain regions to semantic memory.
Semantic memories are encoded and consolidated by the hippocampus. They are stored and retrieved by the neocortex.
Relate the brain regions to classically conditioned emotional memory.
Emotional memory is encoded by the amygdala.
Relate the brain regions to classically conditioned emotional memory.
Reflexive memories are encoded and retrieved by the cerebellum.
Relate the brain regions to procedural memory.
The voluntary motor movement component of procedural memories is encoded by the basal ganglia, and fine motor skills, such as coordination, are encoded by the cerebellum. The basal ganglia is also involved in habituation. Procedural memories are retrieved by the cerebellum.
What are the two serial position effects in relation to memory recollection?
Primacy effect
Recency effect
Outline the primacy effect.
The primacy effect works as information has more time to be rehearsed, and it is encoded into LTM.
Outline the recency effect.
Information can be recalled as it is still in STM.
What are autobiographical memories?
Memories that draw on both episodic and semantic components, to form a complete picture. Episodic memories recall the events from the individual perspective, while semantic memory fills in administrative details.
What types of memory are used to predict future events?
Episodic and semantic. This is because we are able to draw on previous experiences to predict how we might behave in the future.
What is Alzheimer’s disease?
A neurodegenerative disease that involves the progressive loss of neurons in the brain. Alzheimer’s is characterised by memory decline.
What are the symptoms of Alzheimer’s?
A decrease in cognitive functions, such as the ability to plan, problem solve, and think logically.
Personality change.
Changes in mood and emotion.
Frequently becoming confused/disoriented.
Difficulty with language and communication.
What is the first area of the brain affected by Alzheimer’s? What does this mean?
The hippocampus.
This means that new episodic and semantic memories are not encoded, and therefore unable to be retrieved. The progression of cell death is gradual, and over time more memories are not encoded. Because of this, implicit memories are not affected until the last stages of Alzheimer’s.
What causes cell deterioration?
Amyloid plaques.
Neurofibrillary tangles.
Explain what amyloid plaques do.
They grow in between neurons, stopping the neurons from receiving nutrients. This eventually causes neuron death.
Explain what neurofibrillary tangles do.
They occur due to a build-up of tau proteins within the neuron, making it impossible for information to pass through the neuron. This eventually causes neuron death.
Outline Aphantasia.
A phenomenon where individuals lack the ability to generate mental imagery.
While semantic memories are available, these individuals lack the ability to visualise vivid episodic memories.
These individuals struggle to recall autobiographical events and envision the future.
What are mnemonics?
Techniques to aid the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. They organise and link information to fit with existing information in LTM, improving the initial encoding process. These elaborate connections form strong retrieval pathways.
What are the different mnemonics in Western (written) traditions?
Acronyms
Acrostics
Method of Loci
Outline acronyms.
The first letters of the item form pronounceable words to aid memory. These letters act as a retrieval cue to help bring the targeted information into STM.
Outline acrostics.
The first letters of items are used to create a phrase, rhyme or poem.
Outline the method of loci.
This mnemonic converts items into mental images and associates them with locations.
These are the steps to use the method;
- Visualise a familiar route or place.
- Select several memorable things in this place.
- Create a visual image of the things to remember in each place.
- Link each item to a place.
- To retrieve the information, mentally walk through the location.
What are the different mnemonics in Indigenous (oral) traditions?
Sung narratives.
Songlines.
Outline sung narratives.
Stories that share important cultural, ecological and survival information through the use of singing, harmony and rhythm. Narration and rhythm can enhance the encoding, transferring and retrieval of vital information.
Outline Songlines.
Multimodal performances are conducted as a family or community. This occurs throughout travels of Country to record journeys, link important sites and describe ways to live, care for, and nurture the country.
