Unit 3 AOS 2 Flashcards
Learning and Memory (312 cards)
1
Q
what is memory?
A
Memory is an active processing system that encodes, stores and retrieves information when required
2
Q
what is encoding?
A
Converting information into a useable form for storage
3
Q
what is storage?
A
Retaining information over time for future use
4
Q
what is retrevial?
A
Accessing previously stored information for use
5
Q
what does memory pass through?
A
- Memories passes through multiple “stores” to be consolidated
- Rather than having a memory we have a memory system
6
Q
memories relationship to learning?
A
Memory is related to learning – mutual relationship
7
Q
is human memory perfect?
A
Human memory is not perfect –We often fail to process & store all info we are exposed to or need.
8
Q
what are the three components of THE MULTI-STORE MODEL OF MEMORY (ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN)?
A
- sensory memory
- short-term memory
- long-term memory
9
Q
what is function?
A
purpose and roles
10
Q
what is capacity?
A
the amount of information it can hold at any given moment
11
Q
what is duration?
A
the length of time each register can hold information
12
Q
how do the components of the atkinson-shiffrin interact?
A
Despite their distinguishing features, the three stores operate simultaneously and interact in an integrated way.
13
Q
what is the process of the atkinson-shiffrin multi-store model of memory?
A
- Sensory information from external environment goes is transferred into sensory memory
- If not attended to it becomes lost from sensory memory. If attention is paid it is transferred to short term memory.
- If information is not rehearsed it is lost from short term memory. It needs to be rehearsed for it to stay in short term memory.
- Then information is encoded into long term memory and can be retrieved back to short term memory when needed. However some information may be lost or become inaccessible over time.
14
Q
what point for information into memory?
A
Sensory memory is the entry point for information into memory. We have a sensory store for each of our five senses.
15
Q
are we aware of information entering sensory memory?
A
We are not consciously aware of the majority of information entering sensory memory (only become aware when attention is directed toward it in the process of transferring to STM)
16
Q
what happens when sensory information is not attended to?
A
If sensory information is not attended to it is lost quickly (within seconds at most) and completely.
17
Q
what happens when sensory information is attended to?
A
Information that is attended to is transferred to STM.
18
Q
where is sensory memory stored?
A
Sensory information is stored in sub-systems called sensory registers (e.g. iconic memory (for visual memories) & echoic memory (for auditory memories).
19
Q
what does sensory memory prevent us from being?
A
Sensory memory prevents us from being overwhelmed by the huge amounts of incoming sensory information.
20
Q
how does sensory memory store information?
A
It stores sensory information in its raw form for very short periods of time.
21
Q
what does sensory memory act like?
A
Sensory memory acts like a filter, ignoring the information that is irrelevant and paying attention to what is important.
It would be frustrating, confusing and inefficient to process EVERYTHING that reached sensory memory or attend to all the sensory information that our receptors detect.
22
Q
duration of sensory memory?
A
0.2 – 4 seconds
Iconic memory (0.2 to 0.4 secs),
echoic memory (3-4secs)
23
Q
capacity of sensory memory?
A
Unlimited
24
Q
forgetting of sensory memory?
A
Fades rapidly
25
what is short term memory?
Type of working memory which temporarily holds all information you are consciously thinking about at any one moment.
26
where does short term memory receive information from?
Receives information from sensory memory and/or LTM.
27
capacity of short term memory?
Can hold 5-9 bits of information at one time
[chunking can increase the capacity]
28
duration of short term memory?
12 – 30 seconds
{Rehearsal can increase the duration}
29
function of short term memory?
Hold information in awareness for a short period of time – long enough to use for mental tasks
30
Once info reaches STM what are the three options?
Info can be retained in STM:
By working on (attending to/using) or rehearsing the information. E.g. repeating it over and over known as maintenance rehearsal.
Info can become displaced (pushed out by new info or decayed (fade away/forgotten) :
If it is not encoded, used or consciously rehearsed.
Info can be sent to LTM for storage:
Requires further encoding. E.g. making meaningful links to info already stored in LTM, known as elaborative rehearsal.
31
what is long term memory?
the relatively permanent memory system that holds vast amounts of information
32
what is sensory memory?
Sensory memory is a very short-term memory store for information being processed by the sense organs.
33
how is information stored in long term memory?
Information is stored and organised semantically, related to its meaning
34
what are the two types of long term memory?
There are two main LTM types, explicit (conscious) and implicit (unconscious) memory
35
capacity of long term memory?
Virtually unlimited
36
duration of long term memory?
Virtually permanent
- Info stored in LTM is potentially permanent (excluding brain injury or complications).
37
function of long term memory?
Holds information in semantic networks making it available for retrieval at a later date
38
role of sensory memory?
- Entry point for information
- Filters unnecessary information
- Holds information long enough to allow us to perceive the world as continuous
39
role of short term memory?
Actively manipulates encoded information, so it remains in conscious awareness
40
role of long term memory?
Stores information that has been semantically encoded for future use
41
what is learning?
Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, or behaviours through experience.
42
have there been different approaches to learning?
Over time, there have been many different approaches and theories about the process of learning.
43
what are behaviourist approaches to learning?
Behaviourist approaches to learning, such as classical and operant conditioning, are theories that propose learning occurs by interacting with the external environment.
They focus on behaviours that can be directly observed and recorded.
44
what is classical conditioning?
CC is a simple form of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two different stimuli.
45
when is learning said to have occurred in classical conditioning?
Learning is said to have occurred when a stimulus produces a response when it did not previously do so.
46
Distinguishing characteristics of classical conditioning?
- The association (link) between the stimuli is involuntary, as the response is produced automatically. Learning in CC is passive.
- A response that is automatically produced by one stimuli becomes associated with or linked to stimulus that would not normally produce this response.
47
what is a stimulus?
any event/object that elicits a response from an organism
48
what is a response?
a reaction made by an organism to a stimulus
49
what is unconditioned?
unlearned
50
what is conditioned?
learned
51
who was classical conditioning first described by?
Classical conditioning was first described by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov was interested in the digestive system of dogs.
52
what did pavlov do in his experiment?
Pavlov knew that dogs salivated when given food. However, during his experiments, Pavlov noticed that the dogs would start to salivate before they were given food. They would drool when they saw the lab assistants who fed them.
53
what did pavlov realise in his experiment?
Pavlov realised that the dogs had made an association between the two stimuli (food and lab assistants).
54
what did pavlov begin to experiment with?
Pavlov began to experiment and discovered that a dog could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell.
55
what is classical conditioning described as?
Classical conditioning is described as a 3 phase process that involves developing an association between two stimuli, resulting in a learned response.
56
what are the three phases of classical conditioning?
before conditioning, during conditioning and after conditioning
57
what happens in before conditioning?
- involves a response to a stimulus that has not yet been conditioned. It is natural or automatic.
- This is explained as an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that results in a unconditioned response (UCR)
- During this phases there is also a neutral stimulus (NS) that causes no response
58
what happens in during conditioning?
- involves the development of an association between the neutral stimulus (NS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
- this causes the neutral stimulus (NS) to become a conditioned response (CS)
59
what happens in after conditioning?
- results in the now conditioned stimulus (CS) producing a conditioned response (CR) as a result of its association with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
60
what is an Unconditioned response (UCR)?
the response that occurs automatically as a result of the UCS. This is a reflexive response
61
what is an Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?
any stimulus which elicits an UCR
62
what is a Neutral stimulus (NS)?
the stimulus to be associated with the UCS so that it to produces the response. This stimulus does not initially elicit a response.
63
what is a Conditioned stimulus (CS)?
the stimulus which is ‘neutral’ at the start of classical conditioning and does not normally produce the UCR, but eventually becomes associated with the UCS.
64
what is a Conditioned response (CR)?
the learned or acquired response to the conditioned stimulus; occurs after CS has been associated with the UCS
65
step by step of classical conditioning?
Before conditioning:
NS ---> no response
UCS ---> UCR
During conditioning:
NS + UCS ---> UCR
(*repeated pairings form association)
After conditioning:
CS ---> CR
66
what is the little albert experiment process?
Neutral Stimulus: White rat ---> no response
UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus): Loud noise.
UCR (Unconditioned Response): Fear, crying in response to loud noise.
UCS + NS (pairing): Leads to fear and crying
CS (Conditioned Stimulus): White rat.
CR (Conditioned Response): Fear, crying in response to white rat.
Stimulus Generalisation: Albert also became fearful of rabbits, furry dogs, fur coats and Santa beard.
67
what did B.F Skinner start experimenting with?
B.F. Skinner first started experimenting with rats and pigeons in the 1930s.
68
what did B.F Skinner do?
He trained the animals to perform a variety of voluntary behaviours by rewarding them with food every time they performed the behaviour.
69
what was the learning B.F Skinner did?
This type of learning is referred to as operant conditioning because people and animals learn to operate on their environment.
70
what is an operant?
An operant is any response that acts on the environment to produce a desired consequence. An operant is a voluntary behaviour.
An operant is a voluntary action that people and animals initiate and often perform on a daily basis
71
what is operant conditioning?
Operant conditioning is a type of learning whereby the consequences of behaviour determine the likelihood that it will be performed again the future
72
what does operant conditioning propose?
More specifically, OC proposes that an organism will tend to repeat a behaviour (an operant) that has desirable consequences (such as receiving a treat) or that will enable it to avoid an undesirable consequence (such as disapproval or a fine)
73
what are operants influenced by?
Such operants are greatly influenced by consequences
74
what is the learner in operant conditioning?
The learner in operant conditioning is active
75
what did skinner notice about operant conditioning?
Skinner noticed that the conditions needed to be right before a voluntary behaviour is performed. He referred to this as the three-phase model or A-B-C of operant conditioning.
76
what is an antecedent?
the stimulus (object or event) that makes the conditions right and precedes a specific behaviour, signals the probable consequence for the behaviour and therefore influences the occurrence of the behaviour
77
what is a behaviour?
the voluntary response that occurs due to the antecedent
78
what are consequences?
the outcome of the behaviour - determines whether the behaviour is likely to continue or not
79
what is the antecedent sometimes referred to as?
The antecedent is sometimes referred to as the discriminative stimulus.
80
what is a reinforcer?
A reinforcer is defined as any stimulus that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a response.
81
what is a punisher?
A punisher is defined as any stimulus that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a response.
82
what may a reinforcement involve?
- May involve using/receiving a pleasant stimulus or removing an unpleasant stimulus
83
what is the outcome of reinforcement?
the outcome is one that is desired in performing that behaviour
84
when does reinforcement occur?
Reinforcement is said to occur when a stimulus strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that it follows
85
what is positive reinforcement?
- Positive reinforcement occurs when a pleasant stimulus is provided e.g. money, praise, chocolate.
- Positive (+) reinforcer = adding something pleasant
86
what is negative reinforcement?
- Negative reinforcement occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is removed e.g. taking ibuprofen removes a headache, using an umbrella to avoid getting wet.
- Negative (-) reinforcer = subtracting something unpleasant
87
what does punishment involve?
Punishment involves both the delivery of an unpleasant consequence following a response, or the removal of a pleasant consequence
88
what is positive punishment?
Positive Punishment occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is provided e.g. hitting a dog that has misbehaved.
89
what is negative punishment?
Negative Punishment occurs when a pleasant stimulus is removed e.g. having your mobile phone taken by a teacher when you use it during class, or loss of valued recess time by the teacher
90
Factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment?
- order of presentation
- timing
- appropriateness
91
how does order of presentation influence the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment?
To use a reinforce/punisher effectively, it is essential that it be presented after a desired response, never before
92
how does timing influence the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment?
- Use of either reinforcement or punishment is most effective when given immediately after the response has occurred
- Timing helps ensure the organism associates the response with the reinforcer/punisher, without interference from other factors during the time delay (e.g. giving a dog a treat immediately after desired response
- Timing also influences the strength of the response; delay = slower/no learning
93
how does level of appropriateness influence the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment?
- For a stimulus to be a reinforcer, it must provide a satisfying consequence (ie. Providing a treat the dog likes)
- For a stimulus to be an effective punisher, it must provide a consequence that is unpleasant for its recipient
94
what are the similarities of classical and operant conditioning?
- both are behaviourist approaches to learning
- both are three-phase process of learning
- both require several trials in order for learning to occur
95
what are the differences of classical and operant conditioning?
- operant conditioning involved learning a voluntary behaviour, whereas classical conditioning involved learning an involuntary behaviour
- learners are active during operant conditioning, whereas learners are passive during classical conditioning
- operant conditioning requires a consequence, whereas there is no kind of consequence during classical conditioning
96
key explanation of classical conditioning?
repeatedly interacting with stimuli in the environment (the unconditioned and neutral stimulus) can result in an involuntary (passive) learnt response
97
key explanation of operant conditioning?
consequences that are delivered in the same environment as the behaviour can result in a voluntary (active) learnt response
98
what can we learn through observation?
- Through observation we can acquire new behaviours without having to personally experience them
- Many of our attitudes, values and beliefs are also the product of observing others
99
what does watching others help us do?
Watching others helps us avoid dangerous stimuli in our environment, teaches us how to think and feel, and shows us how to act socially
100
how do we learn the behaviours that are expected of us?
- Many behaviours that are expected of us in the roles we undertake (e.g. parents) are established by watching others performing those roles
- Similarly, In many work situations, the most effective learning takes place by observing more experienced staff; e.g. medical students learning surgery
101
when does observational learning occur?
Observational learning (modelling) occurs when someone uses observation of a model’s actions and the consequences of those actions to guide their future actions
102
what is a model?
A model is who or what is being observed
103
what types of model's are there?
- A model can be live; a real-life person who may be demonstrating, acting-out and/or describing or explaining a behaviour
- OR symbolic; a real or fictional character displaying behaviour in books, movies, online and other media
104
The four principles of observational learning are?
- Learning occurs by observing the behaviour of others and the consequences of those behaviours.
- Learning can occur without there being an immediate change in behaviour – it can remain latent.
- Cognition plays a role in observational learning. Expectation of future reward or punishment can influence behaviour.
- Observational learning links the theories of operant conditioning and cognitive theories of learning.
105
what does Bandura’s (1977) Social Learning theory emphasise?
Emphasises the importance of the environment, or ’social context’, in which learning occurs
106
what does Bandura’s (1977) Social Learning theory demonstrate?
Bandura’s experiments demonstrated that both classical and operant conditioning can occur vicariously through observational learning
107
what happens during vicarious conditioning?
During vicarious conditioning, the individuals watches a model’s behaviour being either reinforced or punished and then subsequently behaves in exactly the same way or in a modified way, or refrains from the behaviour
108
what is observational leaning in relation to conditioning?
Observational learning involves being conditioned indirectly by observing someone else’s conditioning
109
what does Bandura’s (1977) Social Learning theory explain?
- Through observation we learn many behaviours by simply watching the behaviour and observing the consequences being experienced by someone else
- Moreover, we are more likely to model, learn and reproduce responses that are observed to be desirable and reinforcing
110
what does vicarious reinforcement result in?
Vicarious reinforcement increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model whose behaviour is reinforced.
111
how is the observer conditioned in vicarious reinforcement?
The observer is conditioned through observing someone else being reinforced without personally experiencing the reinforcement or the consequence directly
112
what is vicarious punishment?
Vicarious punishment occurs when the likelihood of an observer performing a particular behaviour decreases after having seen a model’s behaviour being punished
113
what are the five key processes that are necessary for observational learning?
- Attention
- Retention
- Reproduction
- Motivation
- Reinforcement
114
what is attention in observational learning?
To learn through observation we must closely watch a model’s behaviour and the consequences
115
what might attention be influenced by?
- perceptual capabilities of observer
- motivation & interest level
- situation being observed
- distracters that are present
- characteristics of model
- importance of behaviour
- distinctiveness of behaviour
- effect behaviour may have on us (e.g. satisfaction, convenience)
116
what are we more likely to pay closer attention to (and are more likely to imitate) models who have?
- high status, perceived positively
- perceived similar features and traits (e.g. age, sex)
- familiar qualities (known to observer)
- visible behaviour (stands out)
- behaviour able to be imitated successfully
117
what is retention?
creating a mental representation to remember the model’s demonstrated behaviour. Ie. store a memory
118
key processes in retention?
- The more meaningful we make that mental representation, the more accurately we will be able to replicate the behaviour when necessary.
- This information can then be accessed later on when the individual goes to perform the behaviour.
119
what is reproduction?
the individual must have the physical and mental capabilities to replicate the behaviour
120
key processes of reproduction?
- Must have the ability to put into practice what we observed.
- In many cases, the observer possesses the necessary response (paid attention and retained information) But sometimes, reproducing the model’s actions may involve skills the observer has not yet acquired (this stage is difficult to achieve)
- Must have the potential to be competent enough to develop the necessary skills to imitate the behaviour.
121
what is motivation?
The observer must WANT/have the desire to reproduce (especially by the use of reinforcement) the behaviour.
122
key processes of motivation?
- The learners will perform the act only if they have some motivation or reason to do so
- The presence of reinforcement or punishment, either to the model or directly to the observer, becomes most important in this process (e.g. unless the behaviour is useful or provides some sort of incentive or reward for the observer, it is unlikely they will want to learn it, let alone perform it)
- Motivation is about a desire to perform the action not to learn it!
123
what types of motivation are there?
Motivation can be intrinsic (internal) or extrinsic (external)
124
what is reinforcement in observational learning?
The individual receives a desirable outcome for the behaviour which makes them more likely to reproduce the behaviour again in the future.
125
key process of motivation?
If modelled behaviour is reinforced it results in increased motivation and vice versa.
126
what types of reinforcement are there in observational learning?
- external
- vicarious
- self
127
what is external reinforcement?
the behaviour is reinforced by factors external to the individual, such as receiving an award
128
what is vicarious reinforcement?
observing the modelled behaviour being reinforced for other people
129
what is self-reinforcement?
the behaviour is reinforced through factors internal to the individual, such as feeling proud of themselves
130
Summary of observational learning processes (ARRMR)?
1. Attention - learner pays attention in order to observe the modelled behaviour
2. Retention - learner mentally represents and retains what has been observed
3. Reproduction - depending on their physical capabilities, learner converts the mental representation into action
4. Motivation-reinforcement - reinforcement influences learner's motivation to perform the observed behaviour
131
what did Bandura investigate?
Bandura investigated observational learning of aggression in children
132
who was classical conditioning first described by?
Classical conditioning was first described by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov was interested in the digestive system of dogs.
133
what is a behaviourist approaches to learning?
Theories that propose learning occurs by interacting with the external environment
134
what happened in Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments (1965)?
There were 3 groups of children and each group were shown one of 3 films. Each film showed an adult model punching, kicking and verbally abusing a Bobo clown doll.
135
what was group 1 of Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments (1965)?
Aggressive model rewarded with lollies, soft drink and praise by another adult
136
what was group 2 of Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments (1965)?
Aggressive model punished by spankings and verbal criticisms
137
what was group 3 of Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments (1965)?
Aggressive model received no consequences whatsoever
138
what happened after the children watched the film in Bandura's experiments?
Following each film, each child was placed individually in a room with a one-way mirror and observed. Some children were offered rewards for imitating the aggressive behaviour and others were not.
139
what were the results of Bandura's experiment?
Results showed that children who watched the aggressive model either being reinforced (group 1) or experiencing NO CONSEQUENCES (group 3), imitated the aggressive behaviour more than the children who watched the aggressive model being punished (group 2)
However, when a reward was offered, even the children who saw the aggressive model punished, tended to imitate the model’s behaviour.
140
what were the findings of Bandura's experiment?
- Learning can occur through observation of models
- Vicarious learning can occur when models are seen to be reinforced or punished.
- Learning can remain latent/inactive, expressed only when an appropriate reward is offered
- Learning to control behaviours such as aggression can be learned through observing appropriate models.
- Children who see adults behaving aggressively might believe that this behaviour is normal and therefore be more likely to engage in it.
141
Applications of observational learning?
- Observational learning means that role models are powerful influences on the behaviour of others, especially on children.
- These influences can be negative as well as positive. For example, parents who physically punish their children may be unintentionally modelling aggressive behaviour that the children will later imitate.
- Models can also influence positive behaviour in children e.g. parents reading to their children, recycling, and demonstrating appropriate social behaviour.
142
what approaches other than Aboriginals have we learnt about?
So far, you have learnt about behaviourist and social-cognitive approaches to learning.
143
what is another Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander approaches to learning?
whereby the learner is situated within a system of interconnected knowledge
144
what is learning for First Nations people?
For First Nations peoples, learning is not only dependent on the relationships between learner and teacher, but also immersive; learning takes place by seeing, hearing, feeling, and doing.
What is being learnt is inherently relevant to the way of life for an individual and community, and is connected to time, place, ancestry, and spirit.
145
what are the Indigenous communities and how do they learn?
Indigenous communities exist in 90 countries around the world. These are similar to those in Australia in that they all have their own systematic ways of knowing and learning.
146
what does Indigenous mean?
Indigenous = First Peoples of any country
147
Overview of Indigenous community systems
The worldviews of Indigenous peoples are integrated: each aspect of culture, history and society are connected
Indigenous community systems are generally very old and can be considered on local, national and global scales. Global communities include the Indigenous people of each country. National community systems include the first people of specific countries (for example the Maori of New Zealand). Within this, there are smaller local communities that have their own systems for learning, including their own language, historical stories, decision-making and skills.
148
what is Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australia made up of?
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australia is made up of many different and distinct groups, each with their own culture, customs, language and laws. They are the world’s oldest surviving culture; cultures that continue to be expressed in dynamic and contemporary ways.
149
what does kin reflect?
The term ‘kin’ reflects a complex system of family and community for First Nations peoples. The kinship system goes beyond Western ideas of blood relationships. Terms like father, mother, aunty, uncle, sister, brother and cousin refer to relationships within and across entire generations of multiple family groups.
150
how is Learning as a multimodal system of knowledge?
In Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, learning is not restricted to a classroom with one teacher and multiple students. Instead, learning is relational and interconnected (Harrison et al., 2019), taking place in the community, where family and kin learn from each other. The connections between concepts are highlighted and understood, creating a holistic process of learning.
151
what is Learning as a multimodal system of knowledge?
For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, learning is a process that takes place within complex systems of knowledge which based on interconnected social, physical, and spiritual understandings, and in turn, inform survival and contribute to a strong sense of identity.
152
what are these systems of knowledge developed by?
→ are developed by communities working together and sharing traditional expertise and knowledge. In this way, learning is deeply rooted in relationships between people.
153
what are these systems of knowledge informed by?
→ are informed by culture, including who can learn what and where.
→ are informed by spiritual and ancestral knowledge.
154
how are these systems of knowledge are informed by culture, including who can learn what and where?
For example, in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures, there is a separation of ‘men’s business’ and ‘women’s business’. This is not a discriminatory or sexist separation, but rather one that focuses on particular roles and ceremonies that are specific and sacred to men and women individually. This can relate to health, upbringing, ceremonies, and maintenance of culturally significant places and sacred sites.
155
how are these systems of knowledge informed by spiritual and ancestral knowledge?
For example, Dreamtime stories, which communicate vital knowledges, values, traditions,
and laws to future generations (Artlandish, N.D.).
156
what are these systems of knowledge consisting of?
→ Consist of information that is highly relevant to day-to-day living and survival.
→ consist of information that is highly interconnected.
157
how do these systems of knowledge consist of information that is highly interconnected?
For example, if someone were learning about how to hunt kangaroos, they would not simply learn about the weapons needed to hunt, but rather learn simultaneously about the kangaroo’s behaviour patterns, the plants they eat, how they grow, and the predators that hunt them. In this way, they learn all about the animal, and the role and impact this animal has on the ecosystem, in addition to learning vital survival skills relating to hunting.
158
what are these systems of knowledge patterned on?
* are patterned (created) on Country, or the traditional lands of a particular language or cultural group
159
what does country encompass?
Country encompasses both geographical boundaries and the spiritual, emotional, and intellectual connections to and within it.
160
what are these systems of knowledge created with country's relationship?
Indigenous ways of knowing are deeply rooted with respect for the ecology and an understanding of the importance of the connected relationship with the land. This is also known as connection to Country. Learning is inherently tied to Country, or the place relevant to the knowledge being learnt. People are only one part of Country and are embedded in relationships with the more-than-human entities within this system. This includes animals, plants, geographical features(rocks,mountains), waterways, the skies etc. Country also includes entities such as artworks, ceremonial objects, and intangible thing such as knowledge of laws, philosophies, medicines, ceremonies, songs, stories and dances. Country is a multimodal system because each of these entities has its own way of knowing and being known. Each entity can be observed, heard, smelled, tasted or felt, meaning that all have the capacity to teach people knowledge. Learning happens through being in a relationship with Country.
161
what is learning for First Nations peoples embedded in?
The process of learning for Australia’s First Nations is deeply embedded in relationships
162
what embedded relationships are these between?
- Concepts
- Learner and teacher
- Individuals, families and communities
- All of the above and country
163
what methods/elements of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander approaches to learning are in the Multimodal system?
- Story-sharing
- Learning maps
- Non-verbal
- Symbols and images
- Non-linear
- Land links
- Community links
- Deconstruct/ reconstruct
164
what is Story-sharing?
Learning takes place through narrative and story-sharing
- Continual story sharing
- Commonly known as “yarning” within the First Nations community
165
example of Story-sharing?
Sharing Dreaming stories to communicate
complex knowledge relating to the natural world and survival.
166
what is Learning maps?
Planning and visualising processes and knowledge
- Picturing a pathway and creating a deliberate visual plan for learners to follow
167
example of Learning maps?
Creating a visual representation or mind map of all the key terms within an area of study in VCE Psychology, linking each topic with the relevant part of the body. This can also include when certain pages of the textbook will be read and the order in which you will learn them.
168
what is Non-verbal?
Sharing knowledge through non-verbal means, including dance, art, and observation
- This is known as kinaesthetic learning
169
example of Non-verbal?
Traditional dances where the movements reflect the patterns of certain animals. By observing others and participating in dancing rituals, individuals also learn the habits of the animal. Furthermore, through these dances, culture is taught and celebrated.
170
what is Symbols and images?
Learning through images, symbols and metaphors
171
example of Symbols and images?
Creating artwork that uses symbols to represent
landmarks, animals or objects.
172
what is Land links?
Learning and knowledge are inherently linked to nature, land and country
- Place-based learning
173
example of Land links?
Content is linked to geographical landmarks and features. For example, rather than learning about photosynthesis (the process by which plants turn light into food in order to grow) from a textbook, you would go out to investigate plants in nature, comparing those that were exposed to a lot of sun with those that were not.
174
what is Non-linear?
Thinking outside of the square and taking knowledge from different viewpoints in order to build new understandings
175
example of Non-linear?
Instead of learning about history by investigating one place at a time (for example, ancient Rome, ancient China or ancient Aboriginal Australia), you can learn about history by comparing common
aspects of each society. For example, you could examine the tools used in each place, including how they were made and what they were used for.
You could then compare them to tools used today, and therefore, broaden your understanding of the term ‘tool’ to include many different implements.
176
what is Deconstruct/ Reconstruct?
Breaking down a concepts from whole parts, and then applying it. Learners engage by watching and then doing
177
example of Deconstruct/ Reconstruct?
Learning a new language by reading a passage in that language, and then examining the individual sentences and words within it.
178
what is Community?
Connecting learning to local values, needs, and knowledge. Learning does not occur in a vacuum, but rather is shared with others and used to meet the needs of the community
179
example of Community?
When learning creative writing in an English class, the class may put together a book of stories that explore important spaces in the community.
This is then published and made available for free in the local library.
180
how can information go into STM memory?
- attended to from sensory memory
- retrieved from LTM
181
what is displacement?
Memory can be lost by being pushed out by new incoming information
182
what is decay?
Memory can be lost by fading away over time
183
what are the sub types of LTM?
- explicit memory
- implicit memory
184
what are the sub types of explicit memory?
- semantic memory
- episodic memory
185
what are the sub types of implicit memory?
- procedural memory
- classically conditioned memory
186
what is explicit memory also known as?
Also called declarative memory, because if asked, you can consciously ‘declare’ (state) or ‘explicitly’ express it
187
what is explicit memory?
Memory with awareness
188
what does explicit memory involve?
involves information can be consciously or intentionally retrieved
189
what are examples of explicit memory?
E.g. memory of specific facts, events, general knowledge, personal experiences/events and information associated with school, reading, mathematics etc
190
what is episodic memory?
Memory of personal events/experiences
191
features of episodic memory?
- Often includes details and perception/interpretation of place and the physical/ psychological state
- Like a mental diary, recording episodes we experience
192
what is semantic memory?
Memory of facts and knowledge about the world
193
features of semantic memory?
- Includes academic knowledge, general knowledge, meaning of words, rules, areas of expertise – e.g. chess playing
- Facts not dependent on place or time.
194
what is implicit memory?
Memory without awareness
195
what does implicit memory involve?
Involves memory without conscious or intentional retrieval
196
features of implicit memory?
- You are not aware you are remembering, not are you necessarily aware of how you remember to do something (e.g. ride a bicycle)
- Also known as non-declarative memory; as people often find it difficult to state or describe in words what is being remembered, but the memory can be expressed through behaviour
197
what is procedural memory?
Involves the memory of actions and skills that have been learned previously
198
features of procedural memory?
- Demonstrated through behaviour 🡪 e.g. a skill, motor or ‘muscle memory’
- Typically require little or no intention or conscious attempt to retrieve –
- Procedural memories are often hard to put it into words – trying to explain every movement and skill involved in riding a bicycle to someone who has never ridden one
199
what is classically conditioned memory?
- Classically conditioned (learned but instinctive, reflexive responses
- especially involving emotions (fear & anxiety)
200
where is memory stored?
- Memory is complex, therefore, there is no exact location in the brain where memory is stored
- Memories are consolidated, distributed and stored across multiple brain locations
201
Brain structures involved in long-term implicit and explicit memories?
- Basal Ganglia
- Amygdala
- Hippocampus
- Neocortex
- Cerebellum
202
where is hippocampus located?
→ Located in the lower region of each temporal lobe
203
memory function of hippocampus?
Encodes/consolidates and retrieves explicit memories
204
memory features of hippocampus?
- Transfers newly encoded information to relevant areas of the brain for storage
- The hippocampus does not permanently store any memories itself.
- Interacts with the amygdala to link emotions to explicit memories (e.g where/when it happened)
205
what is consolidation?
Consolidation the process by which a temporary memory is transformed into a more stable, long-lasting form
206
amygdala location and function?
→ Enables you to detect danger, to learn and express fear and anger. It is located next to the hippocampus.
207
memory function of amygdala?
encodes the emotional component of a memory
208
memory features of amygdala?
- Contributes to the enhanced consolidation of emotional charged memories
- Signals the hippocampus that a memory is meaningful, particularly memories involving fear
- Involved in encoding classically conditioned (implicit) memories that involve distinct emotional responses
→ Fear, disgust, anger, excitement etc.
- People with damaged amagdylae are unable to experience emotions associated with episodic memories and do not acquire implicit conditioned fear responses
- Explicit memories associated with strong emotional responses are more memorable than non-emotional memories
209
location of neocortex?
→ The top layer of the cerebral cortex. Covers most of the brain including the four lobes
210
memory function of neocortex?
Stores explicit memories
211
what does neocortex work with?
Works with the hippocampus in the process of retrieving explicit memories
212
memory features of neocortex?
- Once episodic and semantic memories are converted into a usable form in the hippocampus, they are stored within the neocortex for later use
- Aspects of memories are stored in particular locations depending on the type of information
- Also stores complex classically conditioned responses (not reflexes)
213
what is neocortex?
the top layer of the cerebral cortex that is involved in high-order mental processes such as language, attention and memory
214
what is frontal lobe?
emotions, personality, movement
215
what is parietal lobe?
touch, pain, temperature, spatial awareness
216
what is temporal lobe?
hearing (auditory information)
217
what is occipital lobe?
sight (visual information)
218
where is cerebellum located?
→ Located at the base of the brain, involved in motor control, coordination and balance
219
memory function of cerebellum?
- Encodes and temporarily stores implicit procedural memories (memories related to movement/motor skills)
- Encodes simple reflexes acquired through classical conditioning such as blinking in response to the sound of a bell.
220
what is Basal Ganglia?
→ A group of structures located in the midbrain. Works with the cerebellum
221
role of Basal Ganglia?
→ These structures have primary roles in learning, procedural memory, routine behaviours and emotions
222
memory function of Basal Ganglia?
- Involved in encoding and storing well learned/well practised procedural (implicit) memories
- Encoding and storage of implicit memory related to habits and classically conditioned memories
223
what does the basal ganglia help to do?
The basal ganglia help to execute complex well-practised sequences of movement such as riding a bike, cooking a meal, brushing our teeth and driving a car seamlessly
224
what does cerebellum interact with?
The cerebellum interacts with the basal ganglia and motor programming areas of the neocortex to encode, store and retrieve implicit long-term memories associated with habit formation, fine motor movements and simple reflexes.
225
in depth of basal ganglia?
The basal ganglia are a group of nuclei that are involved in various aspects of movement, such as modulating voluntary motor activity and habit learning. From the last Study Design, we'd remember that motor disorders such as Parkinson’s disease stem from the dysfunction of dopaminergic neurons within the substantia nigra (part of the basal ganglia).
226
in depth cerebellum function?
The cerebellum modulates muscular contractions to produce smooth, accurately timed movements, it helps maintain equilibrium by predicting body positions ahead of actual body movements, and is required for some kinds of motor conditioning. Learning new motor skills (i.e. procedural memories) likely requires changes in the circuit strength of cerebellar neurons.
227
what does the motor cortex do?
The motor cortex commands and executes voluntary movements, whereas the basal ganglia and cerebellum modulate (i.e. fine-tune) the signals from the motor cortex to help with coordination, motor learning, and balance.
228
what is explicit memory encoded by (and retrieved)?
- Amygdala (encodes the emotional components of the memory)
- Hippocampus (retrieval)
229
what is explicit memory stored by?
neocortex
230
what is classically conditioned memory encoded by?
- Amygdala (encodes the emotional components of the memory)
- Hippocampus
231
what is procedural memory encoded by?
- Cerebellum
- Basal ganglia
232
what is classically conditioned memory stored by?
Basal ganglia
233
what is procedural memory stored by?
Cerebellum
234
what are autobiographical events?
refer to personally lived experiences such as your first day of school, a family vacation, a birthday party, etc.
235
where are autobiographical events stored?
These autobiographical events are stored in long-term memory and are retrieved every time you think or speak about them.
236
what does research show about the retrieval of episodic and semantic memories?
Research shows that the hippocampus is primarily involved in the retrieval of episodic memories and that the frontal and temporal lobes are involved in the retrieval of semantic memories (Tulving et al., 1991).
237
what do autobiographical events involve?
Autobiographical events involve an overlap of episodic and semantic memory and result in activation of both of these brain areas
238
how do memories combine in autobiographical events?
This occurs because they contain information that is semantic (e.g. date or location) and episodic components (e.g feeling nervous or happy). The episodic component allows for the event to be remembered in rich detail.
239
what are Possible Imagined Futures (aka ‘episodic future thinking’)?
hypothetical experiences and situations that an individual has the ability to create and conceptualise in their mind
240
what happens when an individuals attempts to mentally construct a possible imagined future?
When individuals attempt to mentally construct a possible imagined future, they draw on elements of past experiences from their semantic and episodic memory.
241
what does research show about constructing a possible imagined future?
Research shows that patients who sustained hippocampus damage not only experienced difficulty remembering past events, but also struggled to imagine future scenarios.
242
Types of future-orientated thoughts?
- Abstract and non-personal future events (e.g. considering future environmental issues)
- Specific but non-personal events (e.g. an upcoming public event)
- Abstract but personal events (e.g. the occupation you will take up after graduation)
- Specific and personal future events (e.g. a dinner date with your partner next Saturday)
243
what is aphantasia?
Aphantasia is a condition in which individuals lack the capacity to generate voluntary mental imagery (visual representations and experiences of sensory information without the presence of sensory stimuli)
244
is there a known cause of aphantasia?
There is no known cause of Aphantasia - it can be acquired throughout the lifespan or something people can be born with
245
what can people without aphantasia do?
People without aphantasia can visualise in rich detail what an encounter might involve. These mental representations are in the form of images. Which rely heavily on episodic memory of past experiences, as well as semantic memory of facts.
246
what do people with aphantasia do instead?
People with aphantasia would still be able to anticipate/understand what going to the beach involves, without forming a mental image, by drawing on non-visual information (usually semantic).
247
what do people with aphantasia struggle with?
Aphantasics struggle to retrieve autobiographical events (long term explicit memories) and construct possible imagined futures.
248
what are Neurodegenerative Diseases?
Neurodegenerative Diseases are characterized by the progressive decline in the structure, activity and function of brain tissue
249
what is ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE (AD)?
AD is a type of Dementia characterized by the gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons, progressively causing memory decline, deterioration of cognitive and social skills and personality changes
250
what happens to neurons with people with AD?
Neurons shrink and eventually die at a greater rate than normal:
- Disrupts communication within the brain
- Progressively affects different brain areas
- Those functions or abilities are lost.
251
how are memories affected with AD?
- Explicit memories are primarily affected.
- Implicit memories tend to remain intact or are less severely affected, depending on location in brain and severity
252
how many people and who have AD?
It is estimated that more than 100 000 Australian’s suffer from AD. More common in older people & women.
253
why is AD a neurodegenerative disease?
Essentially, neurons within the brain tissue (‘neuro’) gradually become damaged or deteriorate (‘degenerate’) and lose their function, hence the term neurodegenerative
254
what is dementia?
An "umbrella" term used to describe a range of symptoms associated with cognitive impairment.
255
is there a diagnosis for AD?
- Currently no single or simple diagnostic test for Alzheimer’s disease (or any other dementia).
- An entirely accurate diagnosis can only be made after death, known as a post mortem examination (autopsy)
- A person’s memory, general knowledge, intellectual and personal skills and overall functional capacity are assessed.
256
what are the symptoms of AD?
- Memory loss (starting with typical incidents of understandable forgetfulness)
- Confusion
- Unusual irritability
- Decrease in cognitive function: decision making, planning, problem-solving etc
- Reduced interest in hobbies and social activities.
- Changes in mood and emotion
- Difficulty with language and communication
- Personality change
257
what types of memory loss happen with AD?
- Events
- Words or names
- Directions
- Narratives
- Stored knowledge
- Everyday skills
258
what is events memory loss?
forgetting part of/all of a significant event (e.g wedding)
259
what is words or names memory loss?
forgetting words/ names of well-known people/objects
260
what is directions memory loss?
inability to remember & follow written or verbal directions
261
what is narratives memory loss?
inability to follow a story on television/movie/book
262
what is stored knowledge memory loss?
forgetting known information such as historical or political information
263
what is everyday skills memory loss?
inability to perform tasks such as dressing, cooking, cleaning, using the toilet and taking medication.
264
what happens in the brain with AD?
1. CORTICAL AND SUB-CORTICAL SHRINKAGE
2. FORMATION OF AMYLOID PLAQUES
3. NEUROFIBRILLARY TANGLES
4. REDUCED LEVELS OF THE NEUROTRANSMITTER ACETYLCHOLINE
265
what is 1. CORTICAL AND SUB-CORTICAL SHRINKAGE?
- Widespread death of neurons causes the brain to shrink and shrivel
- Hippocampus is most affected, followed by the neocortex and cerebellum.. Autopsies reveal that ¾ of the neurons in the hippocampus may be lost. This results in anterograde amnesia (new explicit memories cannot be encoded and consolidated)
- The loss of neurons then spreads to the cerebral cortex, resulting in the loss of stored explicit (including episodic, semantic and autobiographical) long-term memories retrograde amnesia)
266
what is 2. FORMATION OF AMYLOID PLAQUES?
Which are fragments of the protein beta-amyloid that accumulate over time to form clumps of hard, insoluble plaques that inhibits communication between neurons
267
what is 3. NEUROFIBRILLARY TANGLES?
- Accumulation of the protein tau which accumulates to form tangles that look like twisted fibres within neurons
- These inhibit the transport of essential substances throughout the neuron
- Believed to eventually kill the neurons
268
what is 4. REDUCED LEVELS OF THE NEUROTRANSMITTER ACETYLCHOLINE?
Medications that increase supply of acetylcholine can slow the rate of degeneration if started during early or middle stages of the disease.
269
are amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles normal?
Both amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles can occur as part of the normal ageing process of the brain, but they are much more abundant in individuals with symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease.
270
what is Acetylcholine?
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that plays a role in memory, learning, attention, arousal and involuntary muscle movement.
271
what actually causes AD biologically?
It remains unclear whether the build up of plaques and tangles cause Alzheimer’s disease or result from the disease process (Dementia Australia, 2018a).
272
what are used to identify brain damage?
PET, CT and MRI scans (Brain Imaging) are frequently used to identify extent of brain damage, making it possible to identify which parts (and therefore functions) have deteriorated.
273
How does Alzheimer’s Disease affect episodic and semantic memory?
As damage can be associated with the hippocampus, patients with Alzheimer’s disease may struggle to remember semantic and episodic components of personally experienced events (autobiographical events).
274
what did a study find out about AD and memories and what was these findings impact?
A study found that individuals with Alzheimer’s disease lacked the capacity to draw on episodic and semantic memories in order to plan and construct new future scenarios.
This study found that this inability to imagine futures compromised their social interactions, ability to plan and carry out these plans, as well as impairing their sense of identity.
275
what and how does AD impair memory?
Progressive loss of neurons due to lesions in the hippocampus impairs ability to retrieve autobiographical events and construct possible imagined futures.
276
what and how does aphantasia impair memory?
Lack of capacity to produce mental imagery reduces the richness and detail of autobiographical events and possible imagined futures.
277
what do Mnemonics written by cultures aim to do?
increase encoding, storage and retrieval
278
define written cultures
a culture in which stories and information are shared through the processes of reading and writing
279
features of written cultures?
- Allows information to be easily conserved over a great length of time
- Can be easily disseminated at any given time
280
define oral cultures
a culture in which information and stories are communicated by word of mouth
281
features of both written and oral cultures?
- Every culture develops oral language
- Not every culture develops written language
- Every child learns the oral language of community, with rare exceptions
- Not every child learn the written language
- Oral language is learned with little explicit instruction
- For most, written language must be learned through explicit instruction
282
define mnemonics
devices or techniques used to aid the encoding, storage and retrieval of information
283
define acronym
a mnemonic in which the first letters of items form a pronounceable word to aid memory
284
features of acronyms?
- Does not have to be “proper” word
- Aid encoding and storage as they link information to words or sounds that are already known
- The first letter also act as a retrieval cue
- Different to an abbreviation (E.g AFL as this isnt a pronounceable word)
285
define acrostic
a mnemonic in which the first letters of items create a phrase, rhyme, or poem to aid memory
286
features of acrostics?
- never eat soggy weet-bix = North, East, South, West
- Link familiar phrases or sentences we already know
- Useful for remembering information in a particular order
- Aids encoding and storage as new information is linked to familiar phrases or sentences
- The first letter of each word acts as a retrieval cue
287
define method of loci
a mnemonic that converts items into mental images and associates them with specific locations to aid memory
288
steps to method of loci?
1. Visualise and imagine a familiar route or place
2. Select several memorable places on the route
3. Create visual imagery for each item that needs to be remembered
4. Link each item to one of the identified memorable landmarks
5. Imagine they are walking through the route and retrieve each item by observing the items at each land mark
289
features of method of loci?
- Assists encoding and storage by visually linking new information to familiar places/ routes
- Mentally “walking” through the familiar route/ location acts as a retrieval cue
- Useful for remember information in a particular order
290
what are the mnemonics by written cultures?
acronyms, acrostics and the method of loci
291
what are the mnemonics by oral cultures?
sung narratives and songlines
292
how do Aboriginal peoples’ use sung narratives?
Songlines
293
define oral traditions
practices in which knowledge, stories, and customs are preserved and shared through spoken word and movement
294
how are oral traditions related to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures?
- A large part of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures
- An effective way to preserve and celebrate any community’s knowledge systems, stories and customs
295
define sung narratives
stories that share important, cultural, ecological and survival information through the use of singing, harmony and rhyming
296
features of sung narratives?
- Narration and rhyming in sung narratives can enhance the encoding, transferring and retrieval of vital cultural and survival information
- Reinforces message transfer and memory for thousands of years
297
define songlines
multimodal performances conducted as a family or community travels through Country and spaces in the landscape that record journeys, link important sites, and describe ways to live, care for, and nurture country
298
how do songlines help memory?
Songlines can enhance encoding, storage and retrieval of information, involving brain regions such as the hippocampus, neocortex and amygdala.
299
features of songlines?
- Important to note these are not just songs, they are the connection between songs and performance conducted by the group and the physical paths travelled
- Carry laws and stories that people live by
- Expressions of ecological and spiritual knowledge that provide information for survival (camp sites, meeting places, travel routes, waterholes etc.)
- Use rhythm and narrative to link information to the landscape. Enhancing encoding
- Have been guarded and taught by elders for thousands of years
300
what can songlines be similar to?
Songlines can be similar to method of loci
- When songlines are sung, individuals walk through the landscape enabling them to retrieve information that is linked to the different stories and places along the route
301
in depth of songlines?
Songlines, also known as Dreaming Tracks, are a complex system of oral storytelling and navigation used by Indigenous Australians. These songlines are essentially musical and narrative maps that describe routes across the land, linking important locations, landmarks, and stories of creation.
302
in depth sung narratives?
Sung narratives are oral stories or histories that are performed in song. These narratives can cover a wide range of topics, including creation myths, historical events, and social norms. The musical element aids in memorization and ensures the stories are engaging and memorable.
303
primary function of songlines?
Navigation, cultural transmission
304
primary function of sung narratives?
Storytelling, historical recording. education
305
structure of songlines?
Route-based, sequential
306
structure of sung narratives?
Story-based, thematic
307
content of songlines?
Geographical, environmental, mythological
308
content of sung narratives?
Events, characters, moral and cultural lessons
309
examples of songlines?
Describing a journey of an ancestral spirit
310
examples of sung narratives?
Recounting the deeds of a historical hero
311
cultural role of songlines?
Spiritual and cultural significance, mapping
312
cultural role of sung narratives?
Educational, communal, moral teaching
