Unit 3 AOS 2 Flashcards
Learning and Memory
what is memory?
Memory is an active processing system that encodes, stores and retrieves information when required
what is encoding?
Converting information into a useable form for storage
what is storage?
Retaining information over time for future use
what is retrevial?
Accessing previously stored information for use
what does memory pass through?
- Memories passes through multiple “stores” to be consolidated
- Rather than having a memory we have a memory system
memories relationship to learning?
Memory is related to learning – mutual relationship
is human memory perfect?
Human memory is not perfect –We often fail to process & store all info we are exposed to or need.
what are the three components of THE MULTI-STORE MODEL OF MEMORY (ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN)?
- sensory memory
- short-term memory
- long-term memory
what is function?
purpose and roles
what is capacity?
the amount of information it can hold at any given moment
what is duration?
the length of time each register can hold information
how do the components of the atkinson-shiffrin interact?
Despite their distinguishing features, the three stores operate simultaneously and interact in an integrated way.
what is the process of the atkinson-shiffrin multi-store model of memory?
- Sensory information from external environment goes is transferred into sensory memory
- If not attended to it becomes lost from sensory memory. If attention is paid it is transferred to short term memory.
- If information is not rehearsed it is lost from short term memory. It needs to be rehearsed for it to stay in short term memory.
- Then information is encoded into long term memory and can be retrieved back to short term memory when needed. However some information may be lost or become inaccessible over time.
what point for information into memory?
Sensory memory is the entry point for information into memory. We have a sensory store for each of our five senses.
are we aware of information entering sensory memory?
We are not consciously aware of the majority of information entering sensory memory (only become aware when attention is directed toward it in the process of transferring to STM)
what happens when sensory information is not attended to?
If sensory information is not attended to it is lost quickly (within seconds at most) and completely.
what happens when sensory information is attended to?
Information that is attended to is transferred to STM.
where is sensory memory stored?
Sensory information is stored in sub-systems called sensory registers (e.g. iconic memory (for visual memories) & echoic memory (for auditory memories).
what does sensory memory prevent us from being?
Sensory memory prevents us from being overwhelmed by the huge amounts of incoming sensory information.
how does sensory memory store information?
It stores sensory information in its raw form for very short periods of time.
what does sensory memory act like?
Sensory memory acts like a filter, ignoring the information that is irrelevant and paying attention to what is important.
It would be frustrating, confusing and inefficient to process EVERYTHING that reached sensory memory or attend to all the sensory information that our receptors detect.
duration of sensory memory?
0.2 – 4 seconds
Iconic memory (0.2 to 0.4 secs),
echoic memory (3-4secs)
capacity of sensory memory?
Unlimited
forgetting of sensory memory?
Fades rapidly
what is short term memory?
Type of working memory which temporarily holds all information you are consciously thinking about at any one moment.
where does short term memory receive information from?
Receives information from sensory memory and/or LTM.
capacity of short term memory?
Can hold 5-9 bits of information at one time
[chunking can increase the capacity]
duration of short term memory?
12 – 30 seconds
{Rehearsal can increase the duration}
function of short term memory?
Hold information in awareness for a short period of time – long enough to use for mental tasks
Once info reaches STM what are the three options?
Info can be retained in STM:
By working on (attending to/using) or rehearsing the information. E.g. repeating it over and over known as maintenance rehearsal.
Info can become displaced (pushed out by new info or decayed (fade away/forgotten) :
If it is not encoded, used or consciously rehearsed.
Info can be sent to LTM for storage:
Requires further encoding. E.g. making meaningful links to info already stored in LTM, known as elaborative rehearsal.
what is long term memory?
the relatively permanent memory system that holds vast amounts of information
what is sensory memory?
Sensory memory is a very short-term memory store for information being processed by the sense organs.
how is information stored in long term memory?
Information is stored and organised semantically, related to its meaning
what are the two types of long term memory?
There are two main LTM types, explicit (conscious) and implicit (unconscious) memory
capacity of long term memory?
Virtually unlimited
duration of long term memory?
Virtually permanent
- Info stored in LTM is potentially permanent (excluding brain injury or complications).
function of long term memory?
Holds information in semantic networks making it available for retrieval at a later date
role of sensory memory?
- Entry point for information
- Filters unnecessary information
- Holds information long enough to allow us to perceive the world as continuous
role of short term memory?
Actively manipulates encoded information, so it remains in conscious awareness
role of long term memory?
Stores information that has been semantically encoded for future use
what is learning?
Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, or behaviours through experience.
have there been different approaches to learning?
Over time, there have been many different approaches and theories about the process of learning.
what are behaviourist approaches to learning?
Behaviourist approaches to learning, such as classical and operant conditioning, are theories that propose learning occurs by interacting with the external environment.
They focus on behaviours that can be directly observed and recorded.
what is classical conditioning?
CC is a simple form of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two different stimuli.
when is learning said to have occurred in classical conditioning?
Learning is said to have occurred when a stimulus produces a response when it did not previously do so.
Distinguishing characteristics of classical conditioning?
- The association (link) between the stimuli is involuntary, as the response is produced automatically. Learning in CC is passive.
- A response that is automatically produced by one stimuli becomes associated with or linked to stimulus that would not normally produce this response.
what is a stimulus?
any event/object that elicits a response from an organism
what is a response?
a reaction made by an organism to a stimulus
what is unconditioned?
unlearned
what is conditioned?
learned
who was classical conditioning first described by?
Classical conditioning was first described by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov was interested in the digestive system of dogs.
what did pavlov do in his experiment?
Pavlov knew that dogs salivated when given food. However, during his experiments, Pavlov noticed that the dogs would start to salivate before they were given food. They would drool when they saw the lab assistants who fed them.
what did pavlov realise in his experiment?
Pavlov realised that the dogs had made an association between the two stimuli (food and lab assistants).
what did pavlov begin to experiment with?
Pavlov began to experiment and discovered that a dog could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell.
what is classical conditioning described as?
Classical conditioning is described as a 3 phase process that involves developing an association between two stimuli, resulting in a learned response.
what are the three phases of classical conditioning?
before conditioning, during conditioning and after conditioning
what happens in before conditioning?
- involves a response to a stimulus that has not yet been conditioned. It is natural or automatic.
- This is explained as an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that results in a unconditioned response (UCR)
- During this phases there is also a neutral stimulus (NS) that causes no response
what happens in during conditioning?
- involves the development of an association between the neutral stimulus (NS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
- this causes the neutral stimulus (NS) to become a conditioned response (CS)
what happens in after conditioning?
- results in the now conditioned stimulus (CS) producing a conditioned response (CR) as a result of its association with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
what is an Unconditioned response (UCR)?
the response that occurs automatically as a result of the UCS. This is a reflexive response
what is an Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?
any stimulus which elicits an UCR
what is a Neutral stimulus (NS)?
the stimulus to be associated with the UCS so that it to produces the response. This stimulus does not initially elicit a response.
what is a Conditioned stimulus (CS)?
the stimulus which is ‘neutral’ at the start of classical conditioning and does not normally produce the UCR, but eventually becomes associated with the UCS.
what is a Conditioned response (CR)?
the learned or acquired response to the conditioned stimulus; occurs after CS has been associated with the UCS
step by step of classical conditioning?
Before conditioning:
NS —> no response
UCS —> UCR
During conditioning:
NS + UCS —> UCR
(*repeated pairings form association)
After conditioning:
CS —> CR
what is the little albert experiment process?
Neutral Stimulus: White rat —> no response
UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus): Loud noise.
UCR (Unconditioned Response): Fear, crying in response to loud noise.
UCS + NS (pairing): Leads to fear and crying
CS (Conditioned Stimulus): White rat.
CR (Conditioned Response): Fear, crying in response to white rat.
Stimulus Generalisation: Albert also became fearful of rabbits, furry dogs, fur coats and Santa beard.
what did B.F Skinner start experimenting with?
B.F. Skinner first started experimenting with rats and pigeons in the 1930s.
what did B.F Skinner do?
He trained the animals to perform a variety of voluntary behaviours by rewarding them with food every time they performed the behaviour.
what was the learning B.F Skinner did?
This type of learning is referred to as operant conditioning because people and animals learn to operate on their environment.
what is an operant?
An operant is any response that acts on the environment to produce a desired consequence. An operant is a voluntary behaviour.
An operant is a voluntary action that people and animals initiate and often perform on a daily basis
what is operant conditioning?
Operant conditioning is a type of learning whereby the consequences of behaviour determine the likelihood that it will be performed again the future
what does operant conditioning propose?
More specifically, OC proposes that an organism will tend to repeat a behaviour (an operant) that has desirable consequences (such as receiving a treat) or that will enable it to avoid an undesirable consequence (such as disapproval or a fine)
what are operants influenced by?
Such operants are greatly influenced by consequences
what is the learner in operant conditioning?
The learner in operant conditioning is active
what did skinner notice about operant conditioning?
Skinner noticed that the conditions needed to be right before a voluntary behaviour is performed. He referred to this as the three-phase model or A-B-C of operant conditioning.
what is an antecedent?
the stimulus (object or event) that makes the conditions right and precedes a specific behaviour, signals the probable consequence for the behaviour and therefore influences the occurrence of the behaviour
what is a behaviour?
the voluntary response that occurs due to the antecedent
what are consequences?
the outcome of the behaviour - determines whether the behaviour is likely to continue or not
what is the antecedent sometimes referred to as?
The antecedent is sometimes referred to as the discriminative stimulus.
what is a reinforcer?
A reinforcer is defined as any stimulus that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a response.
what is a punisher?
A punisher is defined as any stimulus that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a response.
what may a reinforcement involve?
- May involve using/receiving a pleasant stimulus or removing an unpleasant stimulus
what is the outcome of reinforcement?
the outcome is one that is desired in performing that behaviour
when does reinforcement occur?
Reinforcement is said to occur when a stimulus strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that it follows
what is positive reinforcement?
- Positive reinforcement occurs when a pleasant stimulus is provided e.g. money, praise, chocolate.
- Positive (+) reinforcer = adding something pleasant
what is negative reinforcement?
- Negative reinforcement occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is removed e.g. taking ibuprofen removes a headache, using an umbrella to avoid getting wet.
- Negative (-) reinforcer = subtracting something unpleasant
what does punishment involve?
Punishment involves both the delivery of an unpleasant consequence following a response, or the removal of a pleasant consequence
what is positive punishment?
Positive Punishment occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is provided e.g. hitting a dog that has misbehaved.
what is negative punishment?
Negative Punishment occurs when a pleasant stimulus is removed e.g. having your mobile phone taken by a teacher when you use it during class, or loss of valued recess time by the teacher
Factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment?
- order of presentation
- timing
- appropriateness
how does order of presentation influence the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment?
To use a reinforce/punisher effectively, it is essential that it be presented after a desired response, never before
how does timing influence the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment?
- Use of either reinforcement or punishment is most effective when given immediately after the response has occurred
- Timing helps ensure the organism associates the response with the reinforcer/punisher, without interference from other factors during the time delay (e.g. giving a dog a treat immediately after desired response
- Timing also influences the strength of the response; delay = slower/no learning
how does level of appropriateness influence the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment?
- For a stimulus to be a reinforcer, it must provide a satisfying consequence (ie. Providing a treat the dog likes)
- For a stimulus to be an effective punisher, it must provide a consequence that is unpleasant for its recipient
what are the similarities of classical and operant conditioning?
- both are behaviourist approaches to learning
- both are three-phase process of learning
- both require several trials in order for learning to occur
what are the differences of classical and operant conditioning?
- operant conditioning involved learning a voluntary behaviour, whereas classical conditioning involved learning an involuntary behaviour
- learners are active during operant conditioning, whereas learners are passive during classical conditioning
- operant conditioning requires a consequence, whereas there is no kind of consequence during classical conditioning
key explanation of classical conditioning?
repeatedly interacting with stimuli in the environment (the unconditioned and neutral stimulus) can result in an involuntary (passive) learnt response
key explanation of operant conditioning?
consequences that are delivered in the same environment as the behaviour can result in a voluntary (active) learnt response
what can we learn through observation?
- Through observation we can acquire new behaviours without having to personally experience them
- Many of our attitudes, values and beliefs are also the product of observing others
what does watching others help us do?
Watching others helps us avoid dangerous stimuli in our environment, teaches us how to think and feel, and shows us how to act socially
how do we learn the behaviours that are expected of us?
- Many behaviours that are expected of us in the roles we undertake (e.g. parents) are established by watching others performing those roles
- Similarly, In many work situations, the most effective learning takes place by observing more experienced staff; e.g. medical students learning surgery
when does observational learning occur?
Observational learning (modelling) occurs when someone uses observation of a model’s actions and the consequences of those actions to guide their future actions
what is a model?
A model is who or what is being observed
what types of model’s are there?
- A model can be live; a real-life person who may be demonstrating, acting-out and/or describing or explaining a behaviour
- OR symbolic; a real or fictional character displaying behaviour in books, movies, online and other media
The four principles of observational learning are?
- Learning occurs by observing the behaviour of others and the consequences of those behaviours.
- Learning can occur without there being an immediate change in behaviour – it can remain latent.
- Cognition plays a role in observational learning. Expectation of future reward or punishment can influence behaviour.
- Observational learning links the theories of operant conditioning and cognitive theories of learning.
what does Bandura’s (1977) Social Learning theory emphasise?
Emphasises the importance of the environment, or ’social context’, in which learning occurs
what does Bandura’s (1977) Social Learning theory demonstrate?
Bandura’s experiments demonstrated that both classical and operant conditioning can occur vicariously through observational learning
what happens during vicarious conditioning?
During vicarious conditioning, the individuals watches a model’s behaviour being either reinforced or punished and then subsequently behaves in exactly the same way or in a modified way, or refrains from the behaviour
what is observational leaning in relation to conditioning?
Observational learning involves being conditioned indirectly by observing someone else’s conditioning
what does Bandura’s (1977) Social Learning theory explain?
- Through observation we learn many behaviours by simply watching the behaviour and observing the consequences being experienced by someone else
- Moreover, we are more likely to model, learn and reproduce responses that are observed to be desirable and reinforcing
what does vicarious reinforcement result in?
Vicarious reinforcement increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model whose behaviour is reinforced.
how is the observer conditioned in vicarious reinforcement?
The observer is conditioned through observing someone else being reinforced without personally experiencing the reinforcement or the consequence directly
what is vicarious punishment?
Vicarious punishment occurs when the likelihood of an observer performing a particular behaviour decreases after having seen a model’s behaviour being punished
what are the five key processes that are necessary for observational learning?
- Attention
- Retention
- Reproduction
- Motivation
- Reinforcement
what is attention in observational learning?
To learn through observation we must closely watch a model’s behaviour and the consequences
what might attention be influenced by?
- perceptual capabilities of observer
- motivation & interest level
- situation being observed
- distracters that are present
- characteristics of model
- importance of behaviour
- distinctiveness of behaviour
- effect behaviour may have on us (e.g. satisfaction, convenience)
what are we more likely to pay closer attention to (and are more likely to imitate) models who have?
- high status, perceived positively
- perceived similar features and traits (e.g. age, sex)
- familiar qualities (known to observer)
- visible behaviour (stands out)
- behaviour able to be imitated successfully
what is retention?
creating a mental representation to remember the model’s demonstrated behaviour. Ie. store a memory
key processes in retention?
- The more meaningful we make that mental representation, the more accurately we will be able to replicate the behaviour when necessary.
- This information can then be accessed later on when the individual goes to perform the behaviour.
what is reproduction?
the individual must have the physical and mental capabilities to replicate the behaviour
key processes of reproduction?
- Must have the ability to put into practice what we observed.
- In many cases, the observer possesses the necessary response (paid attention and retained information) But sometimes, reproducing the model’s actions may involve skills the observer has not yet acquired (this stage is difficult to achieve)
- Must have the potential to be competent enough to develop the necessary skills to imitate the behaviour.
what is motivation?
The observer must WANT/have the desire to reproduce (especially by the use of reinforcement) the behaviour.
key processes of motivation?
- The learners will perform the act only if they have some motivation or reason to do so
- The presence of reinforcement or punishment, either to the model or directly to the observer, becomes most important in this process (e.g. unless the behaviour is useful or provides some sort of incentive or reward for the observer, it is unlikely they will want to learn it, let alone perform it)
- Motivation is about a desire to perform the action not to learn it!
what types of motivation are there?
Motivation can be intrinsic (internal) or extrinsic (external)
what is reinforcement in observational learning?
The individual receives a desirable outcome for the behaviour which makes them more likely to reproduce the behaviour again in the future.
