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Honors Biology > Unit 3 > Flashcards

Unit 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Steps of Meiosis

A
  1. Synapsis
  2. Recombination
  3. Independent Assortment
  4. Reduction-Division
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2
Q

Steps of Cell Cycle

A 
Interphase (G1, S, G2)
Mitosis
- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase
Cytokinesis
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3
Q

Protein

A

A macromolecule made up of repeating subunits known as amino acids, which determine the shape and function of the protein

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4
Q

Amino Acid

A

The building blocks of proteins. There are 20 different amino acids

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5
Q

Gene

A

A sequence of DNA that contains the information to make at least one protein

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6
Q

Gene Expression

A

The process of using DNA instructions to make proteins

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7
Q

Alleles

A

Alternative versions of the same gene that have different nucleotide sequences

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8
Q

Transgenic

A

Refers to organism that carries one or more genes from a different species

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9
Q

Regulatory Sequence

A

The part of a gene that determines the timing, amount, and location of protein production

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10
Q

Coding Sequence

A

The part of a gene that specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein. Coding sequences determine the identity, shape, and function of proteins; and it is the part of the gene that gets transcribed

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11
Q

Genetic Engineering

A

The process of assembling new genes with novel combinations of regulatory and coding sequences

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12
Q

Recombitant Gene

A

A genetically engineered gene

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13
Q

Transcription

A

1st stage of gene expression; cells produce molecules of mRNA from instructions encoded in genes in DNA

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14
Q

mRNA

A

The RNA copy of an original DNA sequence made during transcription

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15
Q

Translation

A

2nd stage of gene expression; mRNA sequences are used to assemble the corresponding amino acids to make a protein

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16
Q

RNA polymerase

A

The enzyme that carries out transcription. Copies a strand of DNA into complementary strand of mRNA

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17
Q

Ribosome

A

The cellular machinery that assembles proteins during translation

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18
Q

Codon

A

A sequence of three mRNA nucleotides that specifies a particular amino acid

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19
Q

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

A

A type of RNA that transports amino acids to the ribosome during translation

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20
Q

Anticodon

A

The part of a tRNA molecule that binds to a complementary mRNA codon

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21
Q

Genetic Code

A

The set rules relating particular mRNA codons to particular amino acids

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22
Q

How does a protein achieve its final 3D shape?

A

By having the correct sequence of amino acids for it to fold properly

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23
Q

What determines the correct sequence of amino acids?

A

The DNA sequence in a gene

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24
Q

How do differences in alleles result in different proteins?

A

A “misspelling” occurs and does not express the nucleotide sequence correctly which gives different instructions for proteins which results in abnormal or even non-functional proteins

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25
Q

Explain Gene Expression

A

DNA is copied into the mRNA sequence through transcription

The mRNA then gets fed into a ribosome to be translated into sequences that proteins

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26
Q

Explain process of transcription

A
  • Enzyme RNA polymerase binds to the regulatory sequence and then copies the code from the DNA
  • DNA-mRNA base pair rules G-C/A-U/T-A
  • The mRNA transcript then exits the nucleus
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27
Q

Explain process of translation

A
  • mRNA arrives in the cytoplasm; ribosome then “reads” each mRNA codons and brings in corresponding tRNA anticodons with amino acids attached.
  • Ribosome then connects together each amino acid to form the protein chain
  • Translation ends with a stop codon and then the protein folding occurs resulting in proper functional shape
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28
Q

How is a recombinant gene created?

A

A regulatory sequence from one gene is cut and pasted together with a coding sequence from another gene

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29
Q

Cancer

A

A disease of unregulated cell division: cells divide inappropriately and accumulate, in some instances forming a tumor

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30
Q

Cell Division

A

The process by which a cell reproduces itself; cell division is important for normal growth, development, and repair of an organism

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31
Q

Cell Cycle

A

The ordered sequences of stages that a cell progresses through in order to divide during its life
Stages: preparatory phases (G1, S, G2) and division phases (mitosis and cytokinesis)

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32
Q

Interphase

A

The stage of the cell cycle in which cells spend most of their time preparing for cell division
Three sub-phases: G1, S, G2

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33
Q

Mitosis

A

The segregation and separation of duplicated chromosomes during cell division

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34
Q

Cytokinesis

A

The physical division of a cell into two daughter cells

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35
Q

Sister Chromatids

A

The two identical DNA molecules that make up a duplicated chromosome following DNA replication

36
Q

Mutation

A

A change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA

37
Q

Cell Cycle Checkpoint

A

A cellular mechanism that ensures that each stage of the cell cycle is completed accurately

38
Q

Apoptosis

A

Programmed cell death; cell suicide

39
Q

Metastasis

A

The spread of cancer cells from one location in the body to another

40
Q

Phases of Mitosis

A

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

41
Q

Prophase

A

Replicated chromosomes begin to coil up; nuclear membranes disassemble; microtubule fibers form spindle (bulbs on end of diamond shape)

42
Q

Metaphase

A

Microtubule spindles from opposite ends of cell attach to the sister chromatids of each chromosome and become aligned in the center of the cell

43
Q

Anaphase

A

Microtubules shorten, pulling sister chromatids apart to the opposite ends of cell

44
Q

Telophase

A

Identical sets of chromosomes reach each pole, microtubule spindles disassemble, nuclear membranes form around each set and form the daughter cell nuclei

45
Q

Why do cells divide?

A

Embryonic development, cell replacement, wound healing

46
Q

3 checkpoints in cell cycle

A
  1. G1-S (before DNA replication)
  2. right after S (check that DNA replication has been done correctly),
  3. during mitosis before chromatids separate) in normal cells during the process of cell cycle regulation.
47
Q

Germ-Line Mutation

A

A mutation occurring in gametes; passed onto offspring

48
Q

Somatic Mutation

A

A mutation that occurs in a body cell; not passed onto offspring

49
Q

Mutagen

A

Any chemical or physical agent that can damage DNA by changing its nucleotide sequence

50
Q

Carcinogen

A

A type of mutagen that causes cancer by damaging DNA

51
Q

Proto-oncogene

A

“go” signal; A gene that codes for a protein that helps cells divide normally

52
Q

Tumor-suppressor gene

A

“stop” cycle, A gene that codes for proteins that monitor and check cell cycle progression. When these genes mutate, the tumor suppressor proteins lose function

53
Q

Oncogene

A

A mutated and overactive form of a proto-oncogene. Oncogenes drive cells to divide continually

54
Q

Benign Tumor

A

A noncancerous tumor that will not spread throughout the body

55
Q

Malignant Tumor

A

A cancerous tumor that spreads throughout the body

56
Q

How do errors in DNA replication and repair result in mutations?

A

The wrong nucleotide is added during replication, causing mutations which causes a mismatch and the DNA is repaired incorrectly, making a new deformed allele

57
Q

How does cancer develop?

A

Cancer is a genetic disease because it always involves mutations to cell cycle checkpoint proteins that results in a loss of control over the cell cycle. An accumulation of mutations can ultimately lead to cancer

58
Q

How to reduce risk of cancer?

A

The types of cancer through heredity and random cell errors are unavoidable
But avoiding mutagens and carcinogens helps reduce risk of cancer from those chemicals

59
Q

Why do people with “inherited” cancer often develop it relatively young?

A

Inherited mutations increase a person’s risk of developing cancer at an earlier age than normal. These individuals have inherited a predisposition for cancer to develop at an earlier age but they did not inherit cancer directly from a parent

60
Q

Homologous Chromosomes

A

A pair of chromosomes that both contain the same genes. In a diploid cell, one chromosome is inherited from mother and one from father

61
Q

Diploid

A

Having 2 copies of each chromosome

62
Q

Haploid

A

Having only one copy of every chromosome

63
Q

Gametes

A

Specialized reproductive cells that carry one copy of each chromosome. Sperms are male gametes and eggs are female

64
Q

Meiosis

A

A specialized type of nuclear division that generates genetically unique haploid gametes

65
Q

Zygote

A

A cell that is capable of developing into an adult organism. Formed when egg is fertilized by sperm

66
Q

Embryo

A

An early stage of development reached when a zygote undergoes cell division to form a multicellular structure

67
Q

Recombination

A

An event in meiosis during which maternal and paternal chromosomes pair and physically exchange DNA segments

68
Q

Independent Assortment

A

The principle that alleles of different genes are distributed independently of one another during meiosis

69
Q

How many pairs of chromosomes are in human non-reproductive body cells?

A

46; 23 pairs

70
Q

Why do almost all human chromosomes exist in homologous pairs?

A

One from each parent

71
Q

how are the haploid cells created during the first division different from the haploid gametes that are produce during meiosis II?

A

he chromosomes are still replicated and paired with a sister at the end of meiosis I

72
Q

Explain recombination during meiosis I

A

“cut and paste” exchange shuffles genetic information between one homologuos pair; pool noodle example

73
Q

How does independent assortment contribute to the variation in the combination of chromosomes, genes, and alleles a child receives from their parents?

A

It shuffles the genetic information by the way that all of the maternal and paternal homologous pairs align randomly and then assort independently by segregation into two haploid cells

74
Q

Difference between products of meiosis I and meiosis II

A
  • 2 Haploid cells are produced at end of Meiosis I but the chromosomes are still replicated and paired with a sister
  • 4 haploid gametes produced at end of meiosis II- and each is distinctly different
75
Q

Law os segregation

A

When an organism produces gametes, the two alleles for any given trait separate so that each gamete receives only one allele. Offspring inherit only one of two alleles from each parent. They don’t blend but remain their own information passing from one generation to the next

76
Q

Law of Independent Assortment

A

Two alleles for any given trait will segregate independently from any other alleles when passed on to gametes. Thus each gamete may acquire any possible allele combination and traits (sides of punnett diagram)

77
Q

Autosomes

A

Paired chromosomes present in both males and females; all chromosomes except the X and Y chromosomes

78
Q

Sex Chromosomes

A

Paired chromosomes that differ between males and females; XX in females and XY in male

79
Q

X-Linked Trait

A

A phenotype determined by an allele on an X chromosome

80
Q

Incomplete Dominance

A

A form of inheritance in which heterozygotes have a phenotype that is intermediate between homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive

81
Q

Codominance

A

A form of inheritance in which both alleles contribute equally to the phenotype

82
Q

Continuous Variation

A

Variation in a population showing an unbroken range of phenotypes rather than discrete categories

83
Q

Polygenic Trait

A

A trait whose phenotype is determined by the interaction among alleles of more than one gene

84
Q

Multifactorial Inheritance

A

An interaction between genes and environment that contributes to a phenotype or trait

85
Q

Aneuploidy Cells

A

An abnormal number of one or more chromosomes (either extra or missing copies)

86
Q

Nondisjunction

A

The failure of chromosomes to separate accurately during cell division; nondisjunction in meiosis leads to aneuploid gametes

Honors Biology (1 decks)

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