Unit 3 Flashcards
1
Q
Who thermoregulates?
A
Mammals and birds.
2
Q
What are the 6 heat transfers discussed in class that can result in a gain or loss of heat?
A
Conduction, convection, radiation
3
Q
Conduction? (example of thermoregulation)
A
Transfer of Ke through physical contant.
4
Q
Convection? (example of thermoregulation)
A
Transfer of Ke through fluid flow
5
Q
Radiation? (example of thermoregulation)
A
Transfer of Ke through electromagnetic radiation.
6
Q
How can heat be lost? (example of thermoregulation)
A
Evaporation
7
Q
How can heat be gained? (example of thermoregulation)
A
Metabolism
8
Q
Metabolism?
A
biochemical processes that are carried out; resulting in heat as a biproduct.
9
Q
What is Fick’s equation for heat transfer?
A
F=Ka(T1-T2/D)
10
Q
What is physiological regulation? (who uses this?)
A
Actively regulating your internal state based on external conditions. (mammals and birds)
11
Q
Advantages/disadvantages of physiological regulation?
A
Can tolerate a wider variety of conditions, better active range in crazy conditions ://: Energetically expensive, must have evolved regulatory system.
12
Q
What is Environmental conformation?
A
You staying within environmental norms. Ex: your internal temp is the same as the outside.
13
Q
Advantages/Disadvantages to Environmental conformation?
A
More energy affordable ://: not as well suited for a particular environment.
14
Q
What is behavioral regulation?
A
Using environmental heat to keep your internal state warm.
15
Q
Advantages/Disadvantages to behavioral regulation?
A
Lower energy cost, can regulate body temp at certain times of the day ://: ability to thermoregulate depends on environmental conditions.
16
Q
What are the two types of major heat sources in animals?
A
Endotherms + Ectotherms.
17
Q
What is the difference between Endotherms + Ectotherms?
A
Ecto-don’t produce adequate body heat. (uses environment)
Endo- Does (regulates themselves)
18
Q
How much more energy do mammals use then reptiles?
A
Roughly ten times.
19
Q
what’s the difference between Homeotherms + Heterotherms
A
Homo-have fairly constant body temperature
Hetero- does not
20
Q
What are adaptations to increase efflux?
A
Reduce Sa, increase fat(insulation), trap still air (fur or feathers)
21
Q
What are methods for decreasing temperature differential?
A
torpor or hibernation to reduce overall body temperature• Use countercurrent exchange-to reduce heat of blood in extremities
22
Q
What is osmoregulation?
A
The regulation of the concentration of ECF and ICF
23
Q
What things does osmoregulation control?
A
Total water content (ecf), Overall osmolarity (ecf), concentration of specific solutes, ions, and nitrogenous waste (ecf).
24
Q
T/F: if the regulation of ecf and icf is good so will the regulation within the cell?
A
True
25
Excretion?
Unwanted substances removed from the ecf
26
Secretion?
anything leaving the ecf
27
Absorption?
moving substances in ecf.
28
Reabsorption?
anything returning to the ecf
29
Filtration?
forcing solution through a biological sieve
30
What are the end products of protein metabolism?
Nitrogenous waste.
31
whats the most efficient nitrogenous waste?
Ammonia- High solubuilty and toxcitiy: low energy loss.
32
what instances require animals to osmoregulate?
differing concentration then their external conditions
33
what's an osmoconformer?
an organism (shark) who is isosmotic with the Environment (sea).
34
Shark:
most primative case study, NaCl influx at gills, use rectal gland to get rid of NaCl, no active consumption of water
35
Marine fish vs freshwater fish:
Ff: Challenged by ion efflux and water influx, pee a lot a lot and dont drink/// Mf: challenged by ion influx and water efflux, small amounts of pee, drink water.
36
Terrestrials osmoregulation struggles are?
water loss, sufficient ions, elimination of nitrogenous waste.
37
secretion vs filtration system:
secretion gets rid of the components all together, while filtration collects the unnecessary things.
38
in terrestrials where is keratin found and what is it's purpose.
Keratin is found in the epidermal layers, and reduces the levels of evaporation.
39
can kidneys produce hyperosmotic waste?
yes
40
What is the main waste product in humans?
Urea
41
Nephron layers: Outer? Inner
Cortex, Medulla.
42
Whats the concentration of the ecf in the cortex vs medulla.
300 mOsm vs 1400 mOsm
43
Decrease in water in the body does what to ADH?
Increases in: ADH, density of aquaporins, water reabsoption, urine concentration
44
Increase in water in the does what to ADH?
Decreases ADH, density of aquaporins, water reabsorption, urine concentration
45
What does the mammalian kidney do?
regulates ecf volume indirectly by directly adjusting urine volume. Also, helps in osmoregulation .
46
The mammalian kidney is a blank?
Filtration reabsorption system.
47
The dry the conditions the blank the medulla, the blank concentrated your urine is. why is your urine this way?
Deeper, more. To help aid in water retention (mice.)
48
Insects have a blank membrane composed of blank.
highly, wax and chitin, aiding in water retention
49
insects limit the air through them to prevent..
evaporation
50
What are Malpighian tubules? (insects)
tubes that extract water from the feces and urine.
51
How does a filtration based reabsorption system work.
water and small amounts of solutes leave the ecf via bulk flow and useful substances are then reabsorbed into the ecf.
52
What's an example of a filtration based reabsorption system?
Mammalian kidney.
53
Describe the transition of blood to urine.
blood flow runs in a tubule right next to the nephron. Blood is filtered in the glomerulus. Filtered blood moves to the bowmen's capsule. The filtered substance moves to the proximal tubule. The filtered product moves to the loop of Henele. The filtered product moves to the distal tubule. The final step is into the collection duct.
54
what happens at the proximal tubule.
Ions are secreted and reabsorbed.
55
what happens through the first half of The Loop of Henele?
the concentration increases as the filtered substances comes through. This drives water out of the loop via osmosis-aquaporins.
56
what happens through the second half of The Loop of Henele?
concentration starts to decrease and ions are drivein out via channel proteins.
57
What happens at the distal tubule?
As the substance continues to move up the loop of henele, the concentration starts to decrease to its normal levels. This drives out ions via carrier proteins.
58
What happens at the collecting duct.
controls the final concentration of urine.
59
All these processes above are creating:
Primary urine.
60
describe the flow of gas exchange in terrestrials.
air from environment enters-this goes through the respiratory surfaces- O2 moves through the circulation system via the blood- O2 enters the mitochondria- biproduct of cellular respiration, CO2 is released- CO2 travels through the circulatory system- CO2 is released at the ventilatory surfaces.
61
How are gases move in and out of the respiratory surfaces including the mitochondria?
diffusion.
62
How does circulatory system and the outside environment move products?
Bulk flow.
63
t/f bulk flow is the pressure driving force?
T
64
what things improve blood flow?
high pressure differential, low viscosity, increased diameter of tubules.
65
what is the equation of partial pressure.
= total pressure x fraction of the gas mixture.
66
what drives diffusion.
differences is in torr.
67
Partial pressure of a dissolved gas is affected by its?
solubility.
68
Partial pressure of a gas bound to a carrier is influenced by?
carrier affinity
69
characteristics of water for respiration:
Low O₂ content – less than 8 ml dissolved O₂ / liter water•Lower in seawater and with increasing temperature•High density and viscosity•Smaller coefficient for diffusion•High specific heat
70
characteristics of air for respiration:
High O₂ content – over 200 ml O₂ / liter air at sea level•Low density and viscosity – takes little energy to move•Greater coefficient for diffusion – faster diffusion, all else equal•Low specific heat – doesn’t absorb or offload much heat•Normally desiccating – causes water loss
71
In simple gills ventilation is ?
passive
72
complex gills:
Greatly increased surface area•Active, pumping ventilation providing one-way flow•Counter-current exchange between water and blood
73
most terrestrials have blank respiratory systems ?
invaginated
74
what does an active pumps do?
Moves water over gills to get maximal O2 absorption from the water.
75
describe counter current exchange:
blood and water flow moves in opposite directions
76
how do complex gills differ from simple gills?
increased SA, active pumps, counter current exchange,
77
what has trachea and how do they work?
Series of tubes (tracheae) that carry gases directly to and from tissues. Found in insects, myriapods and some arachnids
78
Spiracles?
(opening of tracheae) can be closed to reduce water loss
79
How do vertebrates use negative pressure ventilation systems?
ith an expansion of the thoracic cavity generating a drop in pressure
80
How do amphibians use negative pressure ventilation systems?
with an expansion of the thoracic cavity generating a drop in pressure
81
t/f most vertebrates use tidal flow systems while Avian use flow-through system?
T
82
Series of branching tubes:
Trachea → bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli
83
when we inhale our diaphragm moves?
down
84
Avian gas exchange occurs at?
Gas exchange occurs at parabronchi
85
what does a true circulatory system consist of?
•Blood vessels •One or more hearts to generate hydrostatic pressure •Blood (or hemolymph) that moves through vessels
86
Circulating blood can serve to:
Move respiratory gases•Move nutrients and wastes•Distribute hormones and immune-system cells•Distribute heat•Provide hydrostatic pressure
87
Open vs. Closed circulatory system:
Vessels empty into sinus// Blood stays in vessels throughout transit
88
Chambered pumps:
seen in humans, have a 1 way valve system, and can deal with a greater amount of pressure.
89
Peristaltic pumps:
Part of blood vessels. Limited to lower pressures.
90
Left side of the heart:
bigger and pumps blood to the body (systematically)
91
Right side of the heart:
Pumps to the pulmonary system:
92
The mammalian heart has _ atria and _ ventricles
2,2
93
Atrioventricular (AV) valves:
allow blood from atria to ventricles
94
Semilunar (SL) valves:
allow blood from ventricles to arteries
95
The contraction of the heart is known as?
Systolic
96
The relaxed stage of the heart is?
diastole
97
sinoatrial node does what?
Acts as the pacemaker of the heart, using electrical signals to start constractions.
98
describe blood flow through the heart?
Blood enters the atrium form a vein- when enough pressure builds the av valve opens- blood flows through to the ventricle- once the pressure in ventricle is greater than the atrium the av closes- the Sl valve opens- blood is ejected from the artieres.
99
a contraction would move blood from?
the atrium to the ventricle.
100
Blood leaves lungs and enters tissues with?
104 torr and PCO₂ ≈ 40 torr
101
Blood leaves tissues and enters lungs with ?
PO₂ ≈ 40 torr and PCO₂ ≈ 46 torr
102
Hemoglobin and hemocyanin are?
O2 carries.
103
t/f Each hemoglobin molecule can carry up to four O₂ molecules and are found in the rbc's.
T
104
Most CO₂ that enters the blood is converted into:
bicarbonate
105
do to the reaction to form bicarbonate, The ECF becomes?
more acidic as CO2 levels increase.
106
how do we decrease CO2 levels?
increase ventilation.
107
When does O2 influence ventilation?
If P-O2 drops below 60 torr
108
The relationship between PO₂ and the amount of O₂ bound to Hb is...
nonlinear
109
When does O2 load on the hemaglobin?
at the lungs.
110
when does O2 unload off the hemaglobin?
At the tissue.
111
what feedback loops does the cns work in?
Negative feedback loops
112
What does the nervous system consist of?
Neurons and Glial cells.
113
what does the cns consist of?
Brain, Brain stem, Spinal cord
114
What are the divisions of Pns:
Afferent and Efferent.
115
What is the difference between the afferent and efferent division of the PNS?
afferent carriers information to the CNS
| efferent carriers signals to the effectors
116
Somatic nervous system vs. Autonomic nervous system
Autonomic- Smooth muscles (involuntary actions)
| Somatic- skeletal muscles (voluntary actions)
117
sympathetic vs parasympathetic nervous syestems?
Para-rest and digest
| sym- fight or flight
118
describe the neuron and its pieces?
reciving dendrite: receives ap from neighboring dendrite.
Soma: cell body and surrounds the nucleus
nucleus: houses dna and information to make proteins
axon: carriers the ap
axon terminal: where neurotransmitters are released.
119
action potential moves from (blank) to (blank).
Presynaptic neuron to postsynaptic neuron.
120
what are the three general types of neurons?
Sensory(afferent)-no “upstream” neural connection
Motor(efferent)-“downstream” connection to non-neural effectors
interneuron- connect only to other neurons
121
(t/f) All cells have membrane potentials (Vm)
t
122
what causes membrane potential?
unequal movement of ions across the membrane.
123
the resting potential inside the cell is postive?
false it's negative
124
What determines the membrane potential?
K⁺ and Na⁺
125
what are the differences in concentration of the ICF and ECF?
ICF: High K⁺ and low Na⁺
ECF: High Na⁺ and low K⁺
126
Greater net efflux than influx of ⊕ ions negative Vm
Greater net influx than efflux of ⊕ ions positive Vm
t/f
T
127
Permeability of membrane to each ion depends on presence of ?
channel proteins
128
what causes an ap to occur?
if membrane potential rises above threshold potential
129
depolarization phase vs. repolarization phase.
de: increase in membrane potential
re: decreases in membrane potential
130
voltage gated channels are caused by?
changes in Vm
131
What's the difference between Na and K VG?
Na- opens quickly after the vm exceeds the threshold and closes after a short delay.
K- channels open slowly when Vm exceeds threshold. They close again when Vm drops below threshold.
132
How do ap's affect other adjacent areas?
Region near initial AP is brought above threshold voltage
VG Na⁺ channels activated
AP occurs in this new region
This new AP brings another region above threshold
133
The Domino affect of ap's is referred to as?
propagation.
134
propagation can only be a forward affecter because?
refractory period.
135
what is the junction where differing neurons communicate?
synapse.
136
How is information transmitted between neurons?
Neurotransmitters.
137
Nt's can either blank or blank
excite or inhibit.
138
where are neurotransmitter's stored?
synaptic vesicles
139
How are Nt's released?
Ca protein channels opening, which signals the synaptic vesicles to move down to the main cell membrane and bind to the receptors .
140
t/f receptors can be ion channels or can activate separate charges.
t
141
what channels open and close for excitatory NT's?
Na open and K closes
142
what channels open and close for inhibitory NT's
K opens and Na closes.
143
The membrane potential in the postsynaptic neuron is called?
postsynaptic potential
144
Depolarizing events in the postsynaptic neuron are called?
excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)
145
Hyperpolarizing events in the postsynaptic neuron are called?
inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)
146
Ap's only cause EPSP's?
False, they can cause EPSP's and IPSP's, which if happen near one anther in time and location sum together.
147
neuronal integration:
the summation of the presynaptic nueron being transferred to the post synaptic nueron.
148
Frequency of APs in postsynaptic neuron =
pain index
149
What are the two signals in the of the endocrine system?
Neural signals and hormones
150
The Nervous systems messages are typically...?
Faster and to a specific target.
151
Hormonal messages are typically...?
Slower and more broadly targeted
152
What are the classes of Chemical signals?
Neurotransmitters: Released by nuerons and travle a short distance.
Autocrine agents: cells that releases the effector chemical
Paracrine agents: diffusion to reach neighboring cells.
153
Neurohormones vs. Hormones?
both travel in the blood stream. nuero is released by NT's and hormones are released by glands.
154
What are the major endocrine glands?
Hypothalamus / Posterior pituitary, Anterior pituitary, Thyroid gland, Parathyroid gland, Adrenal gland Pancreas, Gonads
155
Endocrine vs. Exocrine?
endo- releases hormones
| Exo- releases fluids, like sweat, milk, saliva
156
What does the anterior pituitary gland serve for?
Produces hormones that control many systems, including the release of other hormones.
Controlled by hormones released by the hypothalamus (neurohormones).
Metabolism, reproduction, growth.
157
What does the hypothalamus consist of?
hypothalamic, anterior and posterior pituitary gland.
158
what does the posterior pituitary gland do?
Its hormones are neurohormones
ADH – controls water reabsorption in collecting ducts
Oxytocin – promotes contractions during labor and milk “letdown”
159
What are acute responses?
sudden danger, resulting in fight or flight.
| driven by epinephrine.
160
What is the result of long term stress?
Increased cortisol, assisting in sustained increases in activity and alertness.
161
What is the order of actions carried out by long term stress?
Hypothalamus(^crh)- Anterior pituitary(^acth)-adrenal gland (cortisol^).
162
What is the order of actions carried out by acute stress?
Perception of danger
| CNS(directs to sns)-Adrenal gland (epinephrine)
163
What can thyroid hormones serve to do?
```
Metabolic rate (rate of energy use by cells)
CNS development and activity
Protein synthesis
Growth
In amphibians promote metamorphosis.
```
164
Describe the thyroid axis in mammals?
decreased body temp- hypothalamus response(TRH) release-Anterior pituitary (TSH)- Thyroid gland (thyroid hormone)
165
Levels of “downstream” hormones have blank effect on upstream hormones
Negative
166
Hyporesponsiveness ?
too few hormone receptors
167
what is leptin?
helps control the body’s energy stores:
•Leptin is produced by fats cells – more fat stores leads to higher leptin levels
•Influences appetite and metabolic rate
•In most vertebrates, helps maintain “normal” fat reserves
168
T/F fat storages, fat cells and leptin are inversely related?
False, they are directly related.
169
increase in leptin does what to appetite and metabolism.
decrease appetite and increase metabolism.
170
metamorphosis in insects involves two hormones:
* Juvenile hormone (JH)
| * Ecdysone (from “ecdysis”, or molting)
171
How do most animals reproduce?
sexually: Haploid gametes fuse to form diploid offspring
172
What are the mechanisms of Asexual reproduction?
* Budding / fission / breakage
| * Parthenogenesis (development from single egg)
173
T/F in asexual reproduction Offspring are clones of parent?
T
174
How do gametes form?
haploid cells that animals form by meiosis of diploid cells
175
How many cells do Males produce from each diploid spermatogonium?
4
176
Females produce only (blank #) egg (ovum) from each diploid oogonium during oogenesis.
1
177
External fertilization:
occurs only in aquatic/wet environments
178
Spawning:
involves selective, localized fertilization – e.g., frogs
179
Broadcast fertilization:
involves non-selective, population-wide simultaneous release of gametes – e.g., sea urchins
180
T/F :Internal fertilization occurs in both terrestrial and aquatic environments
T
181
spermatophore?
Collection of sperm that a female can sit on and become pregnant.
182
Cloaca?
which acts as the common cavity where the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems
183
Oviparous?
external development of offspring.
184
Viviparous?
development is internal and the embryo
185
Ovoviviparous?
development is internal but within a yolk-filled egg
186
Males produce mainly?
Testosterone
187
Females produce mainly?
Estrogen
188
What are primary male characteristics?
genitalia
189
Secondary male characteristics?
* Pubic and axillary hair
* Beard and general increase in body hair
* Increased muscle mass
190
What induces secondary male characteristics?
Increased testosterone from puberty
191
Males are constantly producing?
Gametes
192
Describe the male pathway during puberty?
Hypothalmus(GnRH)-Anterior pituitary(FSH & LH)-Testes-Testosterone (Spermatogenesis)
193
Erection?
* Vasodilation of arterioles increases influx of blood
| * Compression of venules by increased pressure decreases efflux
194
Where semen created?
ejaculatory duct immediately prior to ejaculation
195
How does Sperm arrive at the ejaculatory duct?
vas deferens
196
Primary female characteristic is?
genitalia
197
Secondary female characteristic are?
* Pubic and axillary hair
* Breast development
* Widening of pelvis
* Fat deposition around hip area
198
Describe the female pathway during puberty?
Hypothalmus(GnRH)-Anterior pituitary(FSH & LH)-Ovaries- estrogen and progestogen production-oogenesis
199
How long is the average menstrual cycle?
28 days
200
What is released during ovulation?
oocyte
201
How long is the Follicular phase, and what occurs within this phase?
1-14, oocyte develops and increases in size as estrogen production increases.
202
When is and how long is ovulation? What happens in ovulation
ovulation is 1 day, day 14.
| Oocyte released from follicle (and ovary)due to spike in luteinizing hormone
203
What day is Luteal phase from? What happens in this phase.
15-28. Follicle turns into corpus luteum, which produces estrogen and progesterone
204
If no implantation occurs what happens?
corpus luteum degenerates during days 25-28
205
what happens from Days 6-28?
Growth and maintenance of uterine lining
206
What happens to the uterine lining during days 6-28?
First, endometrium proliferates due to increasing estrogen.
| After ovulation, endometrium secretes nutrients due to high estrogen and progesterone
207
What happens during days 1-5?
Menstruations.
208
T/F, If no implantation, endometrium is shed – menstruation
T
209
How many days can the oocyte survive after ovulation?
1-2
210
How many days can sperm survive, and how many days does it take to reach the oviduct?
2-3 days survival, an 1 day to travel to the oviduct.
211
What is the window for fertilization?
2-3 days before to 1-2 days after ovulation
212
How long does implantation of a developing embryo take?
one week
213
What is the placenta?
Advanced structure for the embryo and fetus to exchange nutrients via blood.
214
What makes the placenta prime for diffusion?
Increased SA and a thin membrane.
215
What two hormones are required for a successful pregnancy?
Increased levels of estrogen and progestogen.
216
What do progestogen and estrogen do to assist with pregnancy?
Maintain the endometrial layer
•Promote development of uterine muscle
•Inhibit contractions of uterus prior to full term
•Promote development of breasts
217
What results in the mothers loss of nutrients and hormones at birth?
Loss of the placenta.
218
What drives labor.
Uterine contractions.
219
What hormone excites uterine contractions?
oxytocin (from posterior pituitary)
220
Indigestion?
taking in food.
221
Digestion?
Breakdown of food into smaller pieces.
222
Absorption?
Nutrient absorption and uptake.
223
Elimination:
Disposal of waste.
224
What macronutrients are being absorbed?
simple and complex(starch) carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
225
What chemicals break down viable macronutrients?
Amylase= carbs
Lipase= lipids
Proteins=pepsin.
226
What is the absorptive state? what activity occurs within the absorptive state?
nutrients entering blood from GI tract.
•Anabolic as well as catabolic activity
•Amino acids used to make proteins
•Energy stored
227
Where does the post absorptive state occur?
nutrients not entering from GI tract.
•Mainly catabolic activity
•Energy released from stores
228
Calories within Carbs (stored with water molecules) , Lipids, Proteins?
Carbs(stored with water molecules)- 1.5 kcal
Proteins-4.5 kcal
Lipids-9 kcal
229
How is most energy stored?
as fat, 80,000 – 120,000 kcal in humans
230
Describe the actions within the absorptive state.
Large influx of fats and carbs-CNS in turn takes glucose as a source of fuel- glycogen is stored in the liver- Fat and glucose are stored as fats
231
Describe the actions within post absorptive state?
1-main source of fuel is fat released from storages.
2- Then liver is responsible for glucose (breaks down glycogen)
3- Fats are used as fuel
232
What does insulin do:
Secreted by the pancreas. promotes absorption.
233
What does glucagon do:
Secreted by the pancreas. Promotes post absorptive state.
234
what does an increase in glucose absorption in the GI track do?
^blood glucose-Pancreases- ^insulin secretion
235
What does increased insulin lead to?
^, glucose use, glucose storage
236
What does decreased insulin lead to?
decreased blood glucose- pancreas ( decreased insulin & increased glucagon)-
237
( decreased insulin & increased glucagon) leads to...
decreased glucose use and increased release
| ^ fat release
238
What is diabetes mellitus?
High blood glucose levels due to lack of normal absorptive response.
239
Type I diabetes:
(“juvenile-onset”)
240
Type II diabetes:
* Response to insulin is diminished – insulin levels are high
* Associated with inactivity and obesity
* Utility of insulin injections is limited – lifestyle change is more effective
* Normally appears later in life (“adult-onset”)
