Unit 3 Flashcards
Plasticity
Refers to the flexible nature of the brain and the brain neuroma to change structure and function in response to experiences
2 Types of plasticity
- Development Plasticity:
Refers to changes in neural structure in response to GROWTH and DEVELOPMENT (age) - Adaptive Plasticity
Refers to changes in structure in response to an experience (learning guitar)
Define: Synaptic Plasticity
The ability of the synapse to change over time
Define: sprouting
Refers to the formation of new synapses
Define: synaptogenesis
Refers to the formation of new synapses
Define Hebbs Rule:
“Neurons that fire together, wire together”
Define Long Term Potentiation
Refers tot he strengthening between neural connections creating more efficient pathways between activated neurons. When a neural pathway is repeatedly activated, the pathway become more efficient and becomes more likely to fire faster
Define Long Term Depression (LTD)
The long lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic connections. This occurs as a result of a lack of stimulation of pre & post synaptic transmission. Neural connections weaken and neurons become less responsive to neurotransmission.
Difference between Neurotransmitters & Neurohormones
NTs =
- released at synapse and interacts with post synaptic neurons
- only functions as NT
NHs =
- released by neutron by secreted into circulation around body
- can function as hormone & neurotransmitters
Similarities between Neurotransmitters & Neurohormones
- Both are chemical substances
- both can dampen OR enhance a response
Glutamate & Memory
- glutamate is the main excitatory NT.
- lack of glutamate= LTD
- Glutamate allows memories to form & increases ability to learn & memory
“GLUTAMATE IN ACTION (LTP) “
process
- a synapse is repeatedly stimulated
- more dendritic receptors are created
- More neurotransmitters are released
- Stronger connection is achieves
Amygdala role
located in midbrain and processes strong emotional memories
amygdala causing biological response PROCESS
- danger is perceived
- Amygdala is activated
- activates sympathetic NS
- sympathetic NS releases adrenaline & nor-adrenaline
- initiates fight-flight-freeze response
ADRENALINE FORMS (3)
Stress Hormone: adrenaline released from adrenal glands
NT: adrenaline secreted from pre-synaptic neurons and crosses the synapse
NH: adrenaline released from pre-synaptic neurons and enters the blood stream.
consolidation of emotional memories PROCESS
- adrenaline is released
- adrenaline induces release of nor-adrenaline
- nor-adrenaline act as a NT to activate the amygdala to consolidate strong emotional memories
- amygdala signals hippocampus
- hippocampus consolidates memory into long term memory
adrenaline roles
- activate fight-flight-freeze response
- energises body
- enabling fast physiological reactions
- consolidates emotionally arousing experiences
- supports formation of strong emotional memories
- can enhance long-term memory
Brain structures involved in memory
- amygdala
- hippocampus
- cerebellum
- cerebral cortex
define: Hippocampus
- the curled structure in medial temporal lobe involved in the formation of declarative memories (semantic/episodic).
- vital in spatial learning & awareness (e.g. rat maze, London taxi drivers)
define: Amygdala
- located in medial temporal lobe (midbrain)
- forms strong emotional response
- aids survival by alerting of potential threats (stimuli)
- strengthens learning when associated with strong emotions
- damaged amygdala = no signs of fear & no physiological response
define: Cerebral Cortex
- involved in learning & memory storage
- allows higher cognitive function
define: Cerebellum
- located in occipital lobe
- involved in learning muscular movement
Memory & brain structure involved (4)
Amygdala: involved in encoding and consolidating emotional memories
Cerebral Cortex: stores long-term memories; specifically EXPLICIT memories
Hippocampus: encodes EXPLICIT memories
Cerebellum: encodes and stores IMPLICIT procedural memories
Classical Conditioning Key Terms (e.g NS)
Neutral Stimulus (NS) Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned Response (UCR) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR)
classical conditioning short cut
NS = CS
UCR = CR
UCS
3 Phases of Classical Conditioning:
- Before Conditioning: no response is associated
- During Conditioning: through repeated association NS & UCS link = UCR
- After Conditioning: CS = CR
Define: Acquisition
the stage when 2 stimuli are repeatedly paired so an association can be made.
Define: Extinction
when the response no longer occurs and the CS no longer produces CR
Define: Spontaneous Recovery
the brief reappearance of a CR when the CS is present after supposed extinction
Define Stimulus Generalisation
when a stimulus that is SIMILAR to the CS also produces a response that is similar to the CR
Define: Stimulus Discrimination
No similar CS produces a response
Factors affecting Classical Conditioning
no more that 0.5 seconds between presenting UCS & CS
- Nature: the response that occurs naturally
- Association of stimulus : the repeated association
- Frequency of Stimulus: the regular pairing of NS & UCS
- Timing of the stimulus:
- forward conditioning (CS > UCS) VERY EFFECTIVE
- simultaneous conditioning (CS & UCS) NOT VERY
- backward conditioning (UCS > CS) INEFFECTIVE
Little Albert experiment & ethics breached
- participant rights
- withdrawal rights
- confidentiality
- informed consent
- debriefing
- no harm principle
- beneficence
Operant Conditioning 3 Phase Model
- Antecedent: a STIMULUS that causes a voluntary behaviour to occur
- Behaviour: a voluntary ACTION in response to antecedent
- Consequence: an EVENT following an action that makes it either more or less likely to occur again.
Define: Reinforcement
any object or event administered after a response that strengthens and increases the likelihood of reoccurrence
Define: Positive Reinforcement
when a response is followed by a positive event/reward to increase the likelihood of the response occurring again
Define: Negative Reinforcement
refers to the removal of an undesirable stimulus to produce a desirable outcome and increasing the likelihood of repetition.
Define: Punishment
refers to any unpleasant consequences that weakens / decreases the probability of the response to repeat.
Define: Positive Punishment
when a response is followed by an unpleasant consequence that decreases the likelihood of the response occurring again.
Define Negative Punishment/ Response Cost
a form of punishment involving the removal of a desirable event/commodity discouraging the response occurring again.
Operant Conditioning Terms:
Define: Escape Conditioning
based on negative reinforcement; occurs when an individual learns to perform a response in order to end an unpleasant stimulus
Operant Conditioning Terms:
Define: Avoidance Conditioning
involves BOTH classical/operant conditioning; refers to the process of learning to make a response in order to evade discomfort.
Classical VS Operant Differences:
Classical:
- involuntary
- uses autonomic NS
- passive process
Operant:
- voluntary response
- uses central NS
- active process
Classical & Operant Similarities:
- both learned through repeated association
- consists of same elements (extinction, acquisition)
- research findings based on animals
factors affecting effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment
- Order of Presentation : response > consequence
- Timing: consequence must occur immediately
- Appropriateness: either a pleasing or negative consequence
PROCESSES of operant conditioning
- Acquisition: the establishment of a response (a > B > C)
- Extinction: the gradual decrease in strength following non-reinforcement (A > B x c … A x B)
- Spontaneous Recovery: showing response in the absence of any reinforcement (A > B…)
Define: Observational learning (aka Social Learning)
when someone watches another person’s actions and consequences of their behaviour to guide their future actions.
‘observational learning’
DEFINE: vicarious conditioning
a person observes and modifies their OWN behaviour as a result of observing the behaviour and consequences experienced by another person; the ‘model’.
‘observational learning’
DEFINE: vicarious reinforcement
a learner observes the behaviour and consequences of another person, which strengthens the likelihood of the learner performing the same behaviour in the future.
‘observational learning’
DEFINE: vicarious punishment
occurs when a learner observes another person’s behaviour being punished which decreases the likelihood of the learner performing the same behaviour in the future.
‘observational learning’
DEFINE: external reinforcement
refers to the learning by consequences provided by the external world; extrinsic rewards (money, praise, candy)
‘observational learning’
DEFINE: internal reinforce
refers to the learning by consequences provided by meeting standards that we set for ourselves; intrinsic rewards (sense of pride and satisfaction)
What are the 5 stages of Observational Learning?
- Attention
- Retention
- Reproduction
- Motivation
- Reinforcement
explain the 5 stages of Observation Learning.
ATTENTION: to closely and intently watch a model’s behaviour (active attention)
RETENTION: a ‘mental representation’ of the behaviour learned and the storing of this information in memory
REPRODUCTION: to imitate the behaviour but the learner must be mentally & physical capable to reproduce behaviour.
MOTIVATION: the observer must have a desire to perform; extrinsic or intrinsic
REINFORCEMENT: the behaviour must provide an incentive or reward for observer. behaviour and repetition can be influences through vicarious reinforcement.
Memory Fundamental Processes (3)
- ENCODING: the conversion of information into a usable form so it can be represented and stored in memory
- STORAGE: the retention of encoded information over time
- RETRIEVAL: the recovery of stored information; bringing it back to conscious awareness.
3 Components of Atkinson-Shiffrin’s Multistore Model of Memory:
- SENSORY memory
- SHORT-TERM memory
- LONG-TERM memory
Structural features of Atkinson-Shiffrin’s Multistore Model of Memory:
- FUNCTION
- CAPACITY
- DURATION
Control Features of Atkinson-Shiffrin’s Multistore Model of Memory:
- ATTENTION
- REHEARSAL
- RETRIEVAL
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
DEFINE: structural features
the permanent, fixed features of each memory store that do not vary from person to person; IS OBJECTIVE
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
DEFINE: control features
the way individual select and use information
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
DEFINE: attention
choosing to attend to and select incoming sensory information
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
DEFINE: rehearsal
consciously manipulating information to keep in short term
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
DEFINE: retrieval
the recovery of stored information from long term TO conscious awareness.
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
DEFINE: sensory memory
the entry point for information in memory which stimuli that bombard senses are retained for a brief time.
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
DEFINE: short-term memory
STM has limited storage capacity and duration information is rapidly lost unless it is rehearsed. STM contains conscious thoughts and enables us to manipulate information entering from sensory memory or retrieved from long-term.
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
DEFINE: long-term memory
a relatively permanent memory system the holds vast amounts of information for a long period of time.
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
What is the capacity and duration of SHORT-TERM MEMORY?
Capacity: 5-9 items
Duration: 12-30 seconds
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
What is the capacity and duration of SENSORY MEMORY
Capacity: unlimited
Duration: 0.2-0.5 seconds
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
What is the capacity and duration of LONG-TERM MEMORY
Capacity: potentially unlimited
Duration: potentially unlimited
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
What is the capacity and duration of ECHOIC MEMORY?
Capacity: potentially unlimited
Duration: 3-4 seconds
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
What is the capacity and duration of ICONIC MEMORY?
Capacity: potentially unlimited
Duration: 0.2-0.4 seconds
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
What are the types of Sensory Memory?
- Echoic (auditory)
2. Iconic (visual)
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
What the ALL the types and subgroups of Long-Term Memory?
- Explicit/Declarative = Semantic & Episodic
2. Implicit/Non-Declarative = procedural & Classically Conditioned/Emotional
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
DEFINE: explicit memory
- memory WITH awareness
- involves memory that occurs when information can be consciously or intentionally retrieved and stated.
- includes: words, concepts, images, names, passwords
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
DEFINE: episodic/declarative memory
the memory of personal experiences, events or autobiographical memory.
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
DEFINE: semantic memory
the memory of facts and knowledge about the world
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
DEFINE: implicit memory (non-declarative_
- memory WITHOUT awareness
- involves memory that does not require conscious/intentional retrieval
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
DEFINE: procedural memory
the memory of motor skills and actions previously learned and typically require little to no conscious attempt of retrieval.
‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’
DEFINE: classical conditioned/emotional memories
conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli acquired through classical conditioning
Long-Term Memory & Brain Regions:
Episodic Memory + Semantic Memory & …
Cerebral Cortex
Long-Term Memory & Brain Regions:
Explicit Memory & …
Hippocampus
Long-Term Memory & Brain Regions:
Classical Conditioned/Emotion Memory & …
Amygdala
Emotional Events Memory PROCESS
- NOR-ADRENALINE: heightens emotional arousal
- AMYGDALA: is stimulated and attaches emotional significance
- HIPPOCAMPUS: is signalled and encodes & ensures long-term storage for consolidation
Hippocampus & Amygdala PROCESS
- memory is retrieved from cerebral cortex
- hippocampus activation enables remembering of DETAILS= location, date (explicit memory)
- Amygdala activated in retrieval process
FEELINGS= emotions, sympathetic NS (implicit memory)
Cerebellum:
- coordinates fine muscle movement & various perceptual and cognitive processes
- involved in encoding and temporary storage of Procedural Memory
Damage to:
- Cerebellum:
- Hippocampus
- Amygdala
- Cerebral Cortex
- Cerebellum: difficulty in coordinating fine muscle
- Hippocampus: anterograde amnesia, epilepsy, hypoxia
- Amygdala: does NOT register fear, no physiological changes, inability to form emotional memories
- Cerebral Cortex: retrograde amnesia
‘Brain Trauma’
DEFINE: Brain trauma
damage to the brain that is caused by an external force.
‘Brain Trauma’
DEFINE: Brain Surgery
the treatment of brain injury or disease with the use of medical instruments
‘Brain Trauma’
DEFINE: Anterograde Amnesia
a condition where new memories cannot be effectively consolidated AFTER trauma to the hippocampus.
‘Brain Trauma’
DEFINE: Neurodegenerative Disease
a disease characterised by the progressive loss of neurons in the brain
‘Neurodegenerative Disease’
DEFINE: Alzheimer’s disease
a neurodegenerative disease that involves the progressive loss of neurons in the brain and is characterised by memory decline
‘Neurodegenerative Disease’
DEFINE: Amyloid Plaques
fragments of the protein beta-amyloid that accumulate into insoluble plaques that inhibit communication between neurons.
‘Neurodegenerative Diseases’
DEFINE: Neurofibrillary tangles
an accumulation of the protein ‘tau’ that from insoluble tangles within neurons, which inhibit the transport of essential substances throughout the neutron, eventually killing the neutron entirely.
Alzheimer’s disease cause:
- neural death beginning in hippocampus the outwards towards cerebral cortex
Alzheimer’s disease symptoms:
- personality changes
- difficulty recognising people
- gradual identity loss
- decrease in cognitive functions
- changes in mood + emotions
- becoming confused / disoriented
- difficulty with language
‘Factors Affecting Memory’
DEFINE: Retrieval Cues
Stimuli that acts as a prompt to access information from long-term memory
‘Factors Affecting Memory’
DEFINE: Context Dependent Cues
Stimuli in the PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT where a memory is recalled that act as a prompt to retrieve memories formed in that environment.
‘Factors Affecting Memory’
DEFINE: State Dependent Cues
Aspects of an individual’s psychological and physiological EXPERIENCE at eh time a memory was formed that later act as a prompt to retrieving the memory.
‘Factors Affecting Memory’
DEFINE: Maintenance Rehearsal
REPEATING new information over and over again to functioning enhance the duration of STM and transfer information to LTM.
‘Factors Affecting Memory’
DEFINE: Elaborative Rehearsal
Repeating new information while LINKING it to previously learned information to assist the transfer of this information to LTM
‘Factors Affecting Memory’
DEFINE: Serial Position Effect
A psychological concept concerning how effectively information is recalled relative to when it was presented.
‘Factors Affecting Memory’
DEFINE: Primary Effect
Enhances recall of information presented at the BEGINNING of a list due to this information being rehearsed and transferred to LTM.
‘Factors Affecting Memory’
DEFINE: Recency Effect
Enhances recall of information presented at the END of the list due to this information remaining in STM
Retrieval Failure Theory
- failure to access memories due to anxiety that REPRESS the memory resulting in its inability to enter the conscious memory
- memory is DISRUPTED or LOST due to brain trauma or neurodegenerative disease.
Maintenance Rehearsal limitation =
information is retained in STM, the amount of new information that enters is restricted because of the LIMITED CAPACITY of short-term memory
Elaborative Rehearsal methods =
- linking information to personal experiences
- asking questions about information
- creating visual representations
- using mnemonics to add meaning to information
- thinking about meaning of information
- linking information to similar previously stored information
Maintenance VS Elaborative Rehearsal
- Elaborative requires more effort
- elaborative is more effective than maintenance
- elaborative involves deeper processing
- maintenance is held in STM, elaborative is held in LTM
Serial Position Effect
PROCESS
- list is learned
- recall occurs immediately
- first items = receives more attention/rehearsal > LTM
- middle items = too late to be rehearsed, too early for STM (FORGOTTEN)
- last items = remembered in STM
‘serial position effect’
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)
- 30 second delay = ONLY PRIMACY EFFECT
- concludes LTM & STM are different components of a system that interacts with each other for memory function
‘Memory Retrieval’
DEFINE: Recall
a method of retrieving information from memory
‘Memory Retrieval’
DEFINE: Free Recall
retrieving information from memory in any order without the use of a prompt.
‘Memory Retrieval’
DEFINE: Cued Recall
retrieving information from memory with the use of a prompt
‘Memory Retrieval’
DEFINE: Serial Recall
retrieving information from memory in a specific order
‘Memory Retrieval’
DEFINE: Recognition
identifying information from memory amongst a list of alternatives
e.g. multiple choice questions
‘Memory Retrieval’
DEFINE: Relearning
learning information another time after having already learned this information in the past
‘Memory Retrieval’
DEFINE: Reconstruction
‘updating’ previously learned information be incorporating new information to the memory; INACCURATE
which method of retrieval is most sensitive and effective?
- Relearning > 2. Recognition > 3. Recall
‘relearning’
Savings Score
time taken to learn #1 - time taken to learn #2
/ time taken #1
x 100%
‘Loftus Research’ purpose:
Loftus studied the accuracy of eye-witness testimonies and the reconstructive nature of memories, and focused on the impact of leading questions on memories.
‘Loftus Research’
DEFINE: Eye-witness Testimonies
the account given by someone in a legal trial about the details of an event that they observed.
‘Loftus Research’
DEFINE: Leading Questions
questions that contain information (critical word) that imply or prompt a specific response.
‘Loftus Research’
Variables =
IV = different verbs used as critical verb DV = the reported speed from participants
‘Loftus Research’
Findings =
- eye-witness testimonies are fallible due to process of memory reconstruction DURING RETRIEVAL
