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Psychology U3/4 > Unit 3 > Flashcards

Unit 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Plasticity

A

Refers to the flexible nature of the brain and the brain neuroma to change structure and function in response to experiences

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2
Q

2 Types of plasticity

A
  1. Development Plasticity:
    Refers to changes in neural structure in response to GROWTH and DEVELOPMENT (age)
  2. Adaptive Plasticity
    Refers to changes in structure in response to an experience (learning guitar)
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3
Q

Define: Synaptic Plasticity

A

The ability of the synapse to change over time

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4
Q

Define: sprouting

A

Refers to the formation of new synapses

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5
Q

Define: synaptogenesis

A

Refers to the formation of new synapses

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6
Q

Define Hebbs Rule:

A

“Neurons that fire together, wire together”

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7
Q

Define Long Term Potentiation

A

Refers tot he strengthening between neural connections creating more efficient pathways between activated neurons. When a neural pathway is repeatedly activated, the pathway become more efficient and becomes more likely to fire faster

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8
Q

Define Long Term Depression (LTD)

A

The long lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic connections. This occurs as a result of a lack of stimulation of pre & post synaptic transmission. Neural connections weaken and neurons become less responsive to neurotransmission.

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9
Q

Difference between Neurotransmitters & Neurohormones

A

NTs =

  • released at synapse and interacts with post synaptic neurons
  • only functions as NT

NHs =

  • released by neutron by secreted into circulation around body
  • can function as hormone & neurotransmitters
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10
Q

Similarities between Neurotransmitters & Neurohormones

A
  • Both are chemical substances

- both can dampen OR enhance a response

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11
Q

Glutamate & Memory

A
  • glutamate is the main excitatory NT.
  • lack of glutamate= LTD
  • Glutamate allows memories to form & increases ability to learn & memory
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12
Q

“GLUTAMATE IN ACTION (LTP) “

process

A
  1. a synapse is repeatedly stimulated
  2. more dendritic receptors are created
  3. More neurotransmitters are released
  4. Stronger connection is achieves
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13
Q

Amygdala role

A

located in midbrain and processes strong emotional memories

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14
Q

amygdala causing biological response PROCESS

A
  1. danger is perceived
  2. Amygdala is activated
  3. activates sympathetic NS
  4. sympathetic NS releases adrenaline & nor-adrenaline
  5. initiates fight-flight-freeze response
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15
Q

ADRENALINE FORMS (3)

A

Stress Hormone: adrenaline released from adrenal glands
NT: adrenaline secreted from pre-synaptic neurons and crosses the synapse
NH: adrenaline released from pre-synaptic neurons and enters the blood stream.

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16
Q

consolidation of emotional memories PROCESS

A
  1. adrenaline is released
  2. adrenaline induces release of nor-adrenaline
  3. nor-adrenaline act as a NT to activate the amygdala to consolidate strong emotional memories
  4. amygdala signals hippocampus
  5. hippocampus consolidates memory into long term memory
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17
Q

adrenaline roles

A
  • activate fight-flight-freeze response
  • energises body
  • enabling fast physiological reactions
  • consolidates emotionally arousing experiences
  • supports formation of strong emotional memories
  • can enhance long-term memory
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18
Q

Brain structures involved in memory

A
  • amygdala
  • hippocampus
  • cerebellum
  • cerebral cortex
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19
Q

define: Hippocampus

A
  • the curled structure in medial temporal lobe involved in the formation of declarative memories (semantic/episodic).
  • vital in spatial learning & awareness (e.g. rat maze, London taxi drivers)
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20
Q

define: Amygdala

A
  • located in medial temporal lobe (midbrain)
  • forms strong emotional response
  • aids survival by alerting of potential threats (stimuli)
  • strengthens learning when associated with strong emotions
  • damaged amygdala = no signs of fear & no physiological response
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21
Q

define: Cerebral Cortex

A
  • involved in learning & memory storage

- allows higher cognitive function

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22
Q

define: Cerebellum

A
  • located in occipital lobe

- involved in learning muscular movement

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23
Q

Memory & brain structure involved (4)

A

Amygdala: involved in encoding and consolidating emotional memories
Cerebral Cortex: stores long-term memories; specifically EXPLICIT memories
Hippocampus: encodes EXPLICIT memories
Cerebellum: encodes and stores IMPLICIT procedural memories

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24
Q

Classical Conditioning Key Terms (e.g NS)

A 
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Conditioned Response (CR)
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25
Q

classical conditioning short cut

A

NS = CS
UCR = CR
UCS

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26
Q

3 Phases of Classical Conditioning:

A
  1. Before Conditioning: no response is associated
  2. During Conditioning: through repeated association NS & UCS link = UCR
  3. After Conditioning: CS = CR
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27
Q

Define: Acquisition

A

the stage when 2 stimuli are repeatedly paired so an association can be made.

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28
Q

Define: Extinction

A

when the response no longer occurs and the CS no longer produces CR

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29
Q

Define: Spontaneous Recovery

A

the brief reappearance of a CR when the CS is present after supposed extinction

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30
Q

Define Stimulus Generalisation

A

when a stimulus that is SIMILAR to the CS also produces a response that is similar to the CR

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31
Q

Define: Stimulus Discrimination

A

No similar CS produces a response

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32
Q

Factors affecting Classical Conditioning

no more that 0.5 seconds between presenting UCS & CS

A
  1. Nature: the response that occurs naturally
  2. Association of stimulus : the repeated association
  3. Frequency of Stimulus: the regular pairing of NS & UCS
  4. Timing of the stimulus:
    - forward conditioning (CS > UCS) VERY EFFECTIVE
    - simultaneous conditioning (CS & UCS) NOT VERY
    - backward conditioning (UCS > CS) INEFFECTIVE
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33
Q

Little Albert experiment & ethics breached

A
  1. participant rights
  2. withdrawal rights
  3. confidentiality
  4. informed consent
  5. debriefing
  6. no harm principle
  7. beneficence
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34
Q

Operant Conditioning 3 Phase Model

A
  1. Antecedent: a STIMULUS that causes a voluntary behaviour to occur
  2. Behaviour: a voluntary ACTION in response to antecedent
  3. Consequence: an EVENT following an action that makes it either more or less likely to occur again.
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35
Q

Define: Reinforcement

A

any object or event administered after a response that strengthens and increases the likelihood of reoccurrence

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36
Q

Define: Positive Reinforcement

A

when a response is followed by a positive event/reward to increase the likelihood of the response occurring again

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37
Q

Define: Negative Reinforcement

A

refers to the removal of an undesirable stimulus to produce a desirable outcome and increasing the likelihood of repetition.

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38
Q

Define: Punishment

A

refers to any unpleasant consequences that weakens / decreases the probability of the response to repeat.

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39
Q

Define: Positive Punishment

A

when a response is followed by an unpleasant consequence that decreases the likelihood of the response occurring again.

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40
Q

Define Negative Punishment/ Response Cost

A

a form of punishment involving the removal of a desirable event/commodity discouraging the response occurring again.

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41
Q

Operant Conditioning Terms:

Define: Escape Conditioning

A

based on negative reinforcement; occurs when an individual learns to perform a response in order to end an unpleasant stimulus

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42
Q

Operant Conditioning Terms:

Define: Avoidance Conditioning

A

involves BOTH classical/operant conditioning; refers to the process of learning to make a response in order to evade discomfort.

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43
Q

Classical VS Operant Differences:

A

Classical:

  • involuntary
  • uses autonomic NS
  • passive process

Operant:

  • voluntary response
  • uses central NS
  • active process
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44
Q

Classical & Operant Similarities:

A
  • both learned through repeated association
  • consists of same elements (extinction, acquisition)
  • research findings based on animals
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45
Q

factors affecting effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment

A
  1. Order of Presentation : response > consequence
  2. Timing: consequence must occur immediately
  3. Appropriateness: either a pleasing or negative consequence
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46
Q

PROCESSES of operant conditioning

A
  1. Acquisition: the establishment of a response (a > B > C)
  2. Extinction: the gradual decrease in strength following non-reinforcement (A > B x c … A x B)
  3. Spontaneous Recovery: showing response in the absence of any reinforcement (A > B…)
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47
Q

Define: Observational learning (aka Social Learning)

A

when someone watches another person’s actions and consequences of their behaviour to guide their future actions.

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48
Q

‘observational learning’

DEFINE: vicarious conditioning

A

a person observes and modifies their OWN behaviour as a result of observing the behaviour and consequences experienced by another person; the ‘model’.

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49
Q

‘observational learning’

DEFINE: vicarious reinforcement

A

a learner observes the behaviour and consequences of another person, which strengthens the likelihood of the learner performing the same behaviour in the future.

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50
Q

‘observational learning’

DEFINE: vicarious punishment

A

occurs when a learner observes another person’s behaviour being punished which decreases the likelihood of the learner performing the same behaviour in the future.

51
Q

‘observational learning’

DEFINE: external reinforcement

A

refers to the learning by consequences provided by the external world; extrinsic rewards (money, praise, candy)

52
Q

‘observational learning’

DEFINE: internal reinforce

A

refers to the learning by consequences provided by meeting standards that we set for ourselves; intrinsic rewards (sense of pride and satisfaction)

53
Q

What are the 5 stages of Observational Learning?

A
  1. Attention
  2. Retention
  3. Reproduction
  4. Motivation
  5. Reinforcement
54
Q

explain the 5 stages of Observation Learning.

A

ATTENTION: to closely and intently watch a model’s behaviour (active attention)
RETENTION: a ‘mental representation’ of the behaviour learned and the storing of this information in memory
REPRODUCTION: to imitate the behaviour but the learner must be mentally & physical capable to reproduce behaviour.
MOTIVATION: the observer must have a desire to perform; extrinsic or intrinsic
REINFORCEMENT: the behaviour must provide an incentive or reward for observer. behaviour and repetition can be influences through vicarious reinforcement.

55
Q

Memory Fundamental Processes (3)

A
  1. ENCODING: the conversion of information into a usable form so it can be represented and stored in memory
  2. STORAGE: the retention of encoded information over time
  3. RETRIEVAL: the recovery of stored information; bringing it back to conscious awareness.
56
Q

3 Components of Atkinson-Shiffrin’s Multistore Model of Memory:

A
  1. SENSORY memory
  2. SHORT-TERM memory
  3. LONG-TERM memory
57
Q

Structural features of Atkinson-Shiffrin’s Multistore Model of Memory:

A
  • FUNCTION
  • CAPACITY
  • DURATION
58
Q

Control Features of Atkinson-Shiffrin’s Multistore Model of Memory:

A
  • ATTENTION
  • REHEARSAL
  • RETRIEVAL
59
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

DEFINE: structural features

A

the permanent, fixed features of each memory store that do not vary from person to person; IS OBJECTIVE

60
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

DEFINE: control features

A

the way individual select and use information

61
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

DEFINE: attention

A

choosing to attend to and select incoming sensory information

62
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

DEFINE: rehearsal

A

consciously manipulating information to keep in short term

63
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

DEFINE: retrieval

A

the recovery of stored information from long term TO conscious awareness.

64
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

DEFINE: sensory memory

A

the entry point for information in memory which stimuli that bombard senses are retained for a brief time.

65
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

DEFINE: short-term memory

A

STM has limited storage capacity and duration information is rapidly lost unless it is rehearsed. STM contains conscious thoughts and enables us to manipulate information entering from sensory memory or retrieved from long-term.

66
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

DEFINE: long-term memory

A

a relatively permanent memory system the holds vast amounts of information for a long period of time.

67
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

What is the capacity and duration of SHORT-TERM MEMORY?

A

Capacity: 5-9 items
Duration: 12-30 seconds

68
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

What is the capacity and duration of SENSORY MEMORY

A

Capacity: unlimited
Duration: 0.2-0.5 seconds

69
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

What is the capacity and duration of LONG-TERM MEMORY

A

Capacity: potentially unlimited
Duration: potentially unlimited

70
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

What is the capacity and duration of ECHOIC MEMORY?

A

Capacity: potentially unlimited
Duration: 3-4 seconds

71
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

What is the capacity and duration of ICONIC MEMORY?

A

Capacity: potentially unlimited
Duration: 0.2-0.4 seconds

72
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

What are the types of Sensory Memory?

A
  1. Echoic (auditory)

2. Iconic (visual)

73
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

What the ALL the types and subgroups of Long-Term Memory?

A
  1. Explicit/Declarative = Semantic & Episodic

2. Implicit/Non-Declarative = procedural & Classically Conditioned/Emotional

74
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

DEFINE: explicit memory

A
  • memory WITH awareness
  • involves memory that occurs when information can be consciously or intentionally retrieved and stated.
  • includes: words, concepts, images, names, passwords
75
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

DEFINE: episodic/declarative memory

A

the memory of personal experiences, events or autobiographical memory.

76
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

DEFINE: semantic memory

A

the memory of facts and knowledge about the world

77
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

DEFINE: implicit memory (non-declarative_

A
  • memory WITHOUT awareness

- involves memory that does not require conscious/intentional retrieval

78
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

DEFINE: procedural memory

A

the memory of motor skills and actions previously learned and typically require little to no conscious attempt of retrieval.

79
Q

‘Atkinson-Shiffrin’

DEFINE: classical conditioned/emotional memories

A

conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli acquired through classical conditioning

80
Q

Long-Term Memory & Brain Regions:

Episodic Memory + Semantic Memory & …

A

Cerebral Cortex

81
Q

Long-Term Memory & Brain Regions:

Explicit Memory & …

A

Hippocampus

82
Q

Long-Term Memory & Brain Regions:

Classical Conditioned/Emotion Memory & …

A

Amygdala

83
Q

Emotional Events Memory PROCESS

A
  1. NOR-ADRENALINE: heightens emotional arousal
  2. AMYGDALA: is stimulated and attaches emotional significance
  3. HIPPOCAMPUS: is signalled and encodes & ensures long-term storage for consolidation
84
Q

Hippocampus & Amygdala PROCESS

A
  1. memory is retrieved from cerebral cortex
  2. hippocampus activation enables remembering of DETAILS= location, date (explicit memory)
  3. Amygdala activated in retrieval process
    FEELINGS= emotions, sympathetic NS (implicit memory)
85
Q

Cerebellum:

A
  • coordinates fine muscle movement & various perceptual and cognitive processes
  • involved in encoding and temporary storage of Procedural Memory
86
Q

Damage to:

  • Cerebellum:
  • Hippocampus
  • Amygdala
  • Cerebral Cortex
A
  • Cerebellum: difficulty in coordinating fine muscle
  • Hippocampus: anterograde amnesia, epilepsy, hypoxia
  • Amygdala: does NOT register fear, no physiological changes, inability to form emotional memories
  • Cerebral Cortex: retrograde amnesia
87
Q

‘Brain Trauma’

DEFINE: Brain trauma

A

damage to the brain that is caused by an external force.

88
Q

‘Brain Trauma’

DEFINE: Brain Surgery

A

the treatment of brain injury or disease with the use of medical instruments

89
Q

‘Brain Trauma’

DEFINE: Anterograde Amnesia

A

a condition where new memories cannot be effectively consolidated AFTER trauma to the hippocampus.

90
Q

‘Brain Trauma’

DEFINE: Neurodegenerative Disease

A

a disease characterised by the progressive loss of neurons in the brain

91
Q

‘Neurodegenerative Disease’

DEFINE: Alzheimer’s disease

A

a neurodegenerative disease that involves the progressive loss of neurons in the brain and is characterised by memory decline

92
Q

‘Neurodegenerative Disease’

DEFINE: Amyloid Plaques

A

fragments of the protein beta-amyloid that accumulate into insoluble plaques that inhibit communication between neurons.

93
Q

‘Neurodegenerative Diseases’

DEFINE: Neurofibrillary tangles

A

an accumulation of the protein ‘tau’ that from insoluble tangles within neurons, which inhibit the transport of essential substances throughout the neutron, eventually killing the neutron entirely.

94
Q

Alzheimer’s disease cause:

A
  • neural death beginning in hippocampus the outwards towards cerebral cortex
95
Q

Alzheimer’s disease symptoms:

A
  • personality changes
  • difficulty recognising people
  • gradual identity loss
  • decrease in cognitive functions
  • changes in mood + emotions
  • becoming confused / disoriented
  • difficulty with language
96
Q

‘Factors Affecting Memory’

DEFINE: Retrieval Cues

A

Stimuli that acts as a prompt to access information from long-term memory

97
Q

‘Factors Affecting Memory’

DEFINE: Context Dependent Cues

A

Stimuli in the PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT where a memory is recalled that act as a prompt to retrieve memories formed in that environment.

98
Q

‘Factors Affecting Memory’

DEFINE: State Dependent Cues

A

Aspects of an individual’s psychological and physiological EXPERIENCE at eh time a memory was formed that later act as a prompt to retrieving the memory.

99
Q

‘Factors Affecting Memory’

DEFINE: Maintenance Rehearsal

A

REPEATING new information over and over again to functioning enhance the duration of STM and transfer information to LTM.

100
Q

‘Factors Affecting Memory’

DEFINE: Elaborative Rehearsal

A

Repeating new information while LINKING it to previously learned information to assist the transfer of this information to LTM

101
Q

‘Factors Affecting Memory’

DEFINE: Serial Position Effect

A

A psychological concept concerning how effectively information is recalled relative to when it was presented.

102
Q

‘Factors Affecting Memory’

DEFINE: Primary Effect

A

Enhances recall of information presented at the BEGINNING of a list due to this information being rehearsed and transferred to LTM.

103
Q

‘Factors Affecting Memory’

DEFINE: Recency Effect

A

Enhances recall of information presented at the END of the list due to this information remaining in STM

104
Q

Retrieval Failure Theory

A
  • failure to access memories due to anxiety that REPRESS the memory resulting in its inability to enter the conscious memory
  • memory is DISRUPTED or LOST due to brain trauma or neurodegenerative disease.
105
Q

Maintenance Rehearsal limitation =

A

information is retained in STM, the amount of new information that enters is restricted because of the LIMITED CAPACITY of short-term memory

106
Q

Elaborative Rehearsal methods =

A
  • linking information to personal experiences
  • asking questions about information
  • creating visual representations
  • using mnemonics to add meaning to information
  • thinking about meaning of information
  • linking information to similar previously stored information
107
Q

Maintenance VS Elaborative Rehearsal

A
  • Elaborative requires more effort
  • elaborative is more effective than maintenance
  • elaborative involves deeper processing
  • maintenance is held in STM, elaborative is held in LTM
108
Q

Serial Position Effect

PROCESS

A
  1. list is learned
  2. recall occurs immediately
  3. first items = receives more attention/rehearsal > LTM
  4. middle items = too late to be rehearsed, too early for STM (FORGOTTEN)
  5. last items = remembered in STM
109
Q

‘serial position effect’

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)

A
  • 30 second delay = ONLY PRIMACY EFFECT

- concludes LTM & STM are different components of a system that interacts with each other for memory function

110
Q

‘Memory Retrieval’

DEFINE: Recall

A

a method of retrieving information from memory

111
Q

‘Memory Retrieval’

DEFINE: Free Recall

A

retrieving information from memory in any order without the use of a prompt.

112
Q

‘Memory Retrieval’

DEFINE: Cued Recall

A

retrieving information from memory with the use of a prompt

113
Q

‘Memory Retrieval’

DEFINE: Serial Recall

A

retrieving information from memory in a specific order

114
Q

‘Memory Retrieval’

DEFINE: Recognition

A

identifying information from memory amongst a list of alternatives
e.g. multiple choice questions

115
Q

‘Memory Retrieval’

DEFINE: Relearning

A

learning information another time after having already learned this information in the past

116
Q

‘Memory Retrieval’

DEFINE: Reconstruction

A

‘updating’ previously learned information be incorporating new information to the memory; INACCURATE

117
Q

which method of retrieval is most sensitive and effective?

A
  1. Relearning > 2. Recognition > 3. Recall
118
Q

‘relearning’

Savings Score

A

time taken to learn #1 - time taken to learn #2
/ time taken #1
x 100%

119
Q

‘Loftus Research’ purpose:

A

Loftus studied the accuracy of eye-witness testimonies and the reconstructive nature of memories, and focused on the impact of leading questions on memories.

120
Q

‘Loftus Research’

DEFINE: Eye-witness Testimonies

A

the account given by someone in a legal trial about the details of an event that they observed.

121
Q

‘Loftus Research’

DEFINE: Leading Questions

A

questions that contain information (critical word) that imply or prompt a specific response.

122
Q

‘Loftus Research’

Variables =

A 
IV = different verbs used as critical verb
DV = the reported speed from participants
123
Q

‘Loftus Research’

Findings =

A
  • eye-witness testimonies are fallible due to process of memory reconstruction DURING RETRIEVAL

Psychology U3/4 (1 decks)

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