Unit 3 Flashcards
Endocrine Glands
gland that secretes hormones into the bloodstream to act on distant targets
-secrete the principal hormones
-Leydig and Sertoli cells in testies
Pheramones
A chemical signal that is released outside the body of an animal and affects other members of the same species
Allamones
A chemical signal that is released outside the body by one species and affects the behavior of other species
Peptide Hormone (AKA protein hormone)
A hormone that consists of a string of amino acids
-Cannot come and go as pleases
Amine Hormone (AKA monoamine hormone)
A hormone composed of a single amino acid that has been modified into a related molecule
-melatonin or epinephrine
Steroid Hormone
Any of a class of hormones, each of which is composed of four interconnected rings of carbon atoms
-Dissolves readily in lipids, can pass through membranes easily.
Generally located inside the target cell
Second Messenger
slow-acting substance in target cell that amplifies the effects of synaptic/hormonal activity and regulates activity in target cell.
-Peptide and amine hormones bind to receptor proteins on surface of target cell and activate second messengers
Pituitary Gland
Endocrine gland at the base of the skull.
-Hypothalamus is connected via the pituitary stalk.
-Regulates most other endocrine glands (Deemed The Master Gland)
Neuroendocrine Glands
neuron that releases hormones into local or general circulation via bloodstream
Posterior Gland
The rear division of the pituitary gland
-the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei
Transport hormones down their axons, which extend through the pituitary stalk to terminate in the posterior pituitary
-Release two peptide hormones: oxytocin and vasopressin
Oxytocin
A peptide hormone, released from the posterior pituitary
-Triggers milk letdown
Negative Feedback
The process whereby a system monitors its own output and reduces its activity when a set point is reached.
-Like a thermostat
Anterior Pituitary
The front division of the pituitary gland. It secretes tropic hormones
Tropic Hormones
Anterior pituitary hormones that affect the secretion of hormones by other endocrine glands
- travels throughout the bloodstream, reaching all glands, but only the target glands have the appropriate receptors to respond to it. The gland then releases its own hormones
Releasing hormones
Hormones produced in the hypothalamus, that traverse the hypothalamic-pituitary portal system to control the pituitary’s release of tropic hormones
Vasopresin
peptide hormone from posterior pituitary
-Promotes water conservation and increases blood pressure
Milk Letdown
The reflexive release of milk by the mammary glands of a nursing female in response to stimuli associated with suckling.
-Oxytocin
Median Eminence
the point at which the pituitary stalk exits the hypothalamus to connect to the pituitary
-Where axons of these neuroendocrine cells converge
Hypothalamic-Pituitary Portal System
-in response to input, axon terminals of the hypothalamic neuroendocrine cells secrete releasing hormones into the local bloodstream
-Blood carries releasing hormones into the anterior pituitary
-anterior pituitary cells release tropic hormones into general circulation
-tropic hormones regulate activity of major endocrine organs in body
Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
Hypothalamic hormone that controls the release of (LH) and (FSH) from the pituitary (arrives at the anterior pituitary)
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
A gonadotropin, named for its actions on ovarian follicles
-tropic hormones
F: stimulates growth and maturation of egg-containing follicles and secretion of estrogens
M: FSH governs sperm production
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
A gonadotropin, named for its stimulatory effects on the ovarian corpora lutea (secretes the sex steroid hormone progesterone)
M: stimulates the testes to produce T
Proceptive
Readiness to mate through species-typical behaviors
M: staying near the females, sniffing face or vagina
F: approach males, remain close to them, or show alternating approach and retreat behaviors
Copulation/Coitus
transfer of sperm from a male to a female
Intromission
Insertion of the penis into the vagina during copulation
Refractory Phase
period following copulation during which an individual does not recommence copulation
Coolidge Effect
resume sexual activity when provided with a new partner
Sexually Receptive
When an individual is willing to copulate.
-Estrus- Female animals are sexually receptive
Postcopulatory Behaviors
Species-specific postcopulatory behaviors include rolling (in the cat) and grooming (in the rat).
Gametes
A sex cell (sperm or ovum) contains only unpaired chromosomes
Ovum
Zygote
The production and release of an egg
The fertilized egg
Lordosis
Animals hindquarters are raised and the tail is turned to one side, allowing intromission by the male
Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)
sexual behaviors, eating, and aggression
-crucial for lordosis
Medial Preoptic Area (mPOA)
Controls of many behaviors, including sexual behavior, gonadotropin secretion, and thermoregulation
-anterior hypothalamus
mPOA how function
-send axons to the ventral midbrain
-To multisynaptic pathway, to the spinal cord, which mediates various genital reflexes
Sex Stages in Humans
1) Increasing excitement
2)Plateau
3) Orgasm
4) Resolution
Excitement Phase
The phallus—the penis in men, the clitoris in women—becomes engorged with blood, making it erect
-In women, parasympathetic activity changes in vaginal blood vessels, producing lubricating fluids
Plateau Phase
-Stimulation of the penis, clitoris, and vagina during rhythmic thrusting accompanying intromission may lead to orgasm
Orgasm Phase
-Stimulation of the penis, clitoris, and vagina during rhythmic thrusting accompanying intromission may lead to orgasm
Resolution Phase
Women show a much greater variety of commonly observed copulatory sequences. Whereas men have only one basic pattern. Women have at least three typical patterns.
Most men, but not most women, have an absolute refractory phase following orgasm. Many women, on the other hand, can have multiple orgasms in rapid succession.
Emotion
subjective mental state that is usually accompanied by distinctive cognition, behaviors, and physiological changes.
-heart races, the hands and face become warm, the palms sweat, and the stomach feels queasy
Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)
autonomic nervous system that acts as the fight-or-flight system
Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)
part of the autonomic nervous system that generally prepares the body to relax and recuperate
Sham rage (Decorticate Rage)
Intense rage (With snarling and biting in dogs) that lack clear direction.
-cortex had been removed
Limbic System
Brain nuclei that innervate each other to form a network.
-Implicated in emotions
-Includes the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus, the anterior thalamus, the cingulate cortex, the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the fornix.
Amygdala
nuclei in the medial anterior part of the temporal lobe
-Fear and emotion
Patient SM
Woman who is literally fearless due to the loss of the amygdala.
-asked to breathe air with a high concentration of carbon dioxide, she soon felt a panicky fear, flailing her hands about. This result suggests that some other brain system mediates the fear of internal threats, such as a lack of oxygen.
Aggression
Behavior that is intended to cause pain or harm to others
-Inhibited by serotonin
-Reduced by enhanced GABA transmission
Dominance
confer or protect the individual’s social status
Medial Amygdala
portion of the amygdala that receives olfactory and pheromonal information
Psychopath
An individual who routinely engages in deception, violence, or other antisocial behavior with little capacity for empathy or remorse
-Often intelligent with superficial charm
-Poor self-control, a grandiose sense of self-worth
-do not react negatively to violence
-reductions in both the size and activity of the prefrontal cortex
Stress
When threat outweighs resources we feel we have
Adrenal Medulla
inner core of the adrenal gland
-secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine
Epinephrine (adrenaline)
A hormone and a synaptic transmitter
Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
neurotransmitter active in brain and in SNS
Adrenal Cortex
steroid-secreting outer rind of the adrenal gland
Adrenal Corticosteroid Hormones
steroid hormone that is secreted by the adrenal cortex
Cortisol
glucocorticoid stress hormone of the adrenal cortex
Depression
Unhappy mood
-7% of Americans
-More common in women (estrogen increases stress hormones and are encouraged to take care of their emotions)
-80% of suicide victims had MDD
Depression BIO basis
Genetics: 60% MZ twins, 20% in DZ twins; Is independent of environment
-Overactive amygdala and prefrontal cortex
-Underactive anterior cingulate cortex, posterior temporal, and parietal cortex (all involved with attention)
-Smaller and less active hippocampus
-Increased cortisol w/ impaired negative feedback (HPA axis)
Electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT)
strong electrical current is passed through the brain, causing a seizure
-Mostly A last-resort
-FAST RELIEF, automatically releasing n/t
-Short term memory loss
Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS)
magnetic energy are used to stimulate the cortex through the scalp
-Minimal side effects (headaches)
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs)
enzyme that breaks down and inactivates monoamine neurotransmitters
-Prevents DA, ST, and NR breakdown (caused by MAO)
-Watch what you eat!
Tricylics
Traps more MAO @ synapse
-High abuse liability
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) and SNRIs
blocks the reuptake ST at ST synapse
-INC ST level
-Safer minus suicide risk in younger people
-Bigger and better hippocampus growth
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
Correcting negative thinking and consciously changing behaviors as a way of changing feelings
-Best when paired with SSRIs
-Better than SSRI alone
Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)
electrical stimulation via electrode that is surgically implanted deep in the brain
Learned Helplessness
learning paradigm in which individuals are subjected to inescapable, unpleasant conditions
Bipolar Disorder
periods of depression that alternate with excessive, expansive moods
-enlarged ventricles
-Lithium and CBT
Lithium
A chemical element that often relieves the symptoms of bipolar disorder
Sex can be
-Oral
-Anal
-Hand stuff
-Intercourse
-WHATEVER!
NOT EASY TO DEFINE!!!
Motivations for sex
Attraction- Quality features (symmetry, health)
Motivation/Appetitive behavior- desire to have sex
Copulation- Receptivity (willing mate) and ability to execute behavior
Post-Copulation- Time, familiarity, reward aspects
Hormones
chemical secreted by a cell, travels via bloodstream, acting on target tissue
Exocrine Glands
External release
-Sweat, tears (non-hormonal)
Lipophilic hormones
travels via cell wall
-estrogen, T
Steroid Receptor Types
Lipophilic- Nuclear and Membrane
Non-lipophilic- Peptide and Amine
Nuclear receptor
Dimerize & translates into nucleus (DNA)
-Cross cell wall, stick to receptor, dimerize (come together
-Influence protein production
-SLOW effect
Membrane receptor
Acts on receptor in cell wall
-Faster effect than nuclear receptor
-Effects other n/t once activated
Non-Lipophilic
Needs receptor in wall
Peptide
String of amino acids
-Oxytocin and luteinizing hormones
-No cross BBB
Amine
Modified single amino acid
-Epinephrine
G-protein coupled/ metabotropic
Alters cell function
-Produces new proteins
Hypothalamic-Pituitary Gonadal Axis (HPG) 1
3-teir axis, coordinates release of hormones
-Process sensory info from cortex
-Process environmental cues and regulate hypothalamus activity
HPG 2
Hypothalamus releases neuroendocrine cells, releasing gonadotropin hormones (GNRH)
HPG 3
Pituitary Gland (PG) receives hormone in anterior PG on well wall of gonadotrophs. FSH and LH released.
Gonad
Testie or ovaries
Male Gonadal Hormone
Testies
Testosterone (LH), sperm production (FSH) by sticking to their receptors
Female Gonadal Hormone
Ovulation (egg release) (LH). Maturation of egg (FSH).
Estrogen produced from mature egg. Ruptured follicle produces progesterone
-Estrogen good for reproductive organ maintenance & 2nd sex characteristics
No GNRH…
No FSH or LH, no egg maturation/ovulation
-Birth control
RU486
Abortion pill taken during EARLY pregnancy
-Progesterone receptor antagonist (blocker)
-Sheds uteri lining and fetus
Inhibin B
Male birth control
-Inhibits FSH (sperm production)
2nd Sex Characteristics
Not related to reproduction, distinguishes sexual maturation
F: Estrogen, breasts, hip widen
M: T, Adam’s apple, deep voice, facial hair
Removal of gonads in adulthood
Remove T in men, with therapy reactivates
Testosterone activates
androgen receptors (AR).
-Active AR = Low sexual behavior
-Prostate cancer treatment
T to DHT
T converts into DHT w/ 5-alpha reductase enzyme
-AR receptors activate
-Effects penis sensitivity/functionability
Estrogen in males
Estrogen produced via aromatase enzyme
-Estrogen Receptors (ER) activated
-Effects sexual motivation (libido)
Hormones on sexual behavior: F
Sex is contingent on estrogen & progesterone
-Naturally cycling women = High drive
-Social & environmental factors effect behavior
Activation Effects of Hormones Model
Change in hormone release
Change in behavior
Change in experience
Sexual Behavior Brain Areas: M
MPOA- Copulatory behavior & motivation
-Flooded with ER & AR
Sexual Behavior Brain Areas: F
Ventromedial Nucleus of Hypothalamus (VMH)- Copulatory behavior and motivation
-Many ER
-Enough estrogen for lordosis & male preference
Orgasm & Brain areas: M
Stimulation by partner/self = INC activity in reward pathway at ejaculation in VTA
Orgasm & Brain areas: F
Stimulation by partner/self = 30% brain activity higher during orgasm but no center.
-Hippocampus, reward pathway, hypothalamus, & amygdala INC activity during orgasm
Sexual Differentiation: Genetics
We have 23 pairs of chromosomes, the 23rd is sex chromosomes.
-Males have 1/3 of genetics compared to females
-SRY gene on Y chromosome. SRY makes SRY protein, develops testies.
Chromosome - Gonad - Hormones - Morphological - Behavioral sex
Undifferentiated system to reproductive
2 duct undifferentiated system
-T associates w/ AR, form Wolffian system
-Mullerian inhibiting hormone (MIH) degrades Mullerian system
-No MIH, Mullerian forms
T to DHT
T to DHT via 5-alpha reductase enzyme
-DHT very potent
-Develops external organs, associating w/ AR in undifferentiated tissue
No T, no DHT, no AR stimulation, female organs from (Mullerian is default)
Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus (SDN)
x2 bigger in M from T exposure
Sexual orientation: Genetics
Homo higher concordance in MZ twins
-Xq28 gene correlated in homo M
-Smaller subnucleus of hypothalamus in M
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
Too much androgen (enzyme defect)
-Overactive AR (big SDH)
-XX: No testies, enlarged clitoris, fused labia, still fertile
-Usually attracted to women
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
-XY
-Non-function AR - no detect DHT or T
-Testies, neither wolffian nor mullerian, infertile, shallow vagina
-Attracted to M
Guevadoches (eggs at 12)
-XY
-T, testies, AR, wolffian, fertile
-5-alpha reductase deficient = no DHT, seeming female gonads early
-T surge at puberty
-Partial masc. ext. genitals
-Attracted to F
Social Aggression
Aimed at conned specific to
-Get dominance
-Access to mates
Predatory Aggression
Need food
Sexual Aggression
Aggression for engaging in sexual behavior
-Sexual assault
Maternal Aggression
Protect offspring
Self-Aggression
Against self
-Self mutilation
-Suicide
Aggression
Intentional initiation of hostile acts towards someone else
-Social, predatory, maternal, sexual, self
-M = x5 likely to commit murder (Env, culture, social, bio)
Predatory/Instrumental (cold) aggression
Premeditated, goal, unemotional
-Psychopaths
Impulsive/Affective (HOT) aggression
When provocative stimulus produces fear/anger
Prenatal exposure to synthetic progesterone
INC aggression
-F attract to F
-M w/ INC T, INC aggression, drug use, and delinquency (Expectation, drug affects, ect.)
Anabolic Androgenic Steroids (AAS)(Syn. T)
Roid rage (Already competitive?)
Serotonin and aggression
INC ST = DEC aggression
-Those who attempt suicide have low levels of ST metabolic in CSF
-Too many STR in suicide victims
Aggression: Brain areas
-Cortical areas DEC aggression: No cortex = Sham rage
-VMH stim = Sham rage
-Hypothalamus and Amygdala stim = INC aggression
Types of distress
Acute- On & off quickly (jump scare)
Chronic- Seemingly never ending (taxes)
Eustress- Good stress, enhances performance
Stress response
Appraised via sensory and emotional info
Cortex - Amygdala - hypothalamus
-Fast = Fight or flight (Sympathetic NS)
-Epinephrine (adrenaline)- FAST (INC HR, BP, & respiration)
-Slow cortisol response
HPA AXIS
Corticol Info (sensory/stressor)
↓ Synthesize & release
Hypothalamus
↓ Corticotrophin Release Factor (CRF)(peptide)
Anterior Pituitary Gland
↓ ACTH (peptide)
Adrenals (Feeds back to APG & hypothalamus)
↓ Cortisol (steroid)
Mobilize glucose (energy) stores anti-inflammatory (stress response)
-↓ = Feed forward
HPA AXIS Negative feed back
Adrenal sends signals to hypothalamus & APG, DEC CRF, ACTH, and cortisol
Stress on Hippocampus
Chronic stress (too much cortisol) fucks up hippocampus
-INC BP, reproductive health issues, sleep difficulty, ulcers
-DEC immune system, weight regulation
Continual cortisol impacts hippocampus by impairing its function , INC protein breakdown. Impaired –FB cannot shut off cortisol
Dexamethasone Suppression Test
INC in synth. cortisol
-No MDD = cortisol DEC throughout day
-MDD = INC cortisol throughout day
Life style MDD treatment
Diet
-DEC in fat/ad libidum diet = DEC MDD behavior
-Calorie restriction benefits
Environment enrichment - Go outside
Excersize
Sexual or ANY intimate behavior
