UNIT 2:THE FUNCTION OF PROMINENCE IN ENGLISH Flashcards
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Collins & Mees (2013) Practical Phonetics and Phonology. A Resource Book for Students. U.K.: Routlege Finch, D. & H. Ortiz Lira (1982) A course in English Phonetics for Spanish Speakers. London: Heinemann Wells, J. C. (2007) English Intonation. An Introduction. New York: Cambridge University Press
What is the difference between word stress and sentence stress?
Word stress refers to the emphasis on a particular syllable within a word, while sentence stress refers to the emphasis on certain words within a sentence.
📌 Example:
Word stress: ‘pho-to-graph (stress on first syllable)
Sentence stress: I’ve HEARD that JACK and JANE spent their HOLIDAYS in JaMAIca.
What types of words are typically stressed in a sentence?
✅ Content words (nouns, main verbs, adjectives, most adverbs) carry important information and are usually stressed. Function words (articles, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions) are usually unstressed.
📌 Example:
SALLY’S been TRYING to SEND you an E-MAIL. (stressed words in caps)
🧐 What are some exceptions where function words receive stress?
✅ Function words are stressed when they:
1️⃣ Form wh-questions (who, what, where, why, how).
2️⃣ Are demonstratives (this, that, these, those).
3️⃣ Indicate contrast (I said give HER a kiss, not HIM).
4️⃣ Are prepositions in a contrastive context (I know very little aBOUT jazz. I prefer classical music.).
🧐 How does stress-timing work in English?
✅ English is a stress-timed language, meaning stressed syllables occur at roughly equal time intervals. Unstressed syllables are compressed or expanded depending on the number of them.
📌 Example:
Jimmy’s BOUGHT a HOUSE near GLASgow. (Regular rhythm)
Sally’s been TRYING to SEND you an E-MAIL. (More syllables, but rhythm remains steady)
🧐 How does vowel length change with added syllables?
✅ In polysyllabic words, vowels tend to shorten as unstressed syllables are added.
📌 Example:
mean ➡️ meaning ➡️ meaningful
see ➡️ seedy ➡️ seedily
red ➡️ ready ➡️ readily
🧐 What is the difference between stress-timing and syllable-timing?
📌Stress-timed languages (e.g., English, Dutch, German) have EQUAL INTERVALS between stressed syllables, compressing unstressed ones.
📌Syllable-timed languages (e.g., Spanish, French, Hindi) give each syllable approximately EQUAL TIME.
Example:
English: Mary HAD a LITtle LAMB. (stressed syllables spaced evenly)
French: Je voudrais descendre au prochain arrêt s’il vous plaît. (each syllable takes a similar amount of time)
🧐 How does stress affect rhythm in poetry?
✅ Stressed syllables form the beats of a poem’s rhythm. English poetry follows a pattern where stressed syllables occur at regular intervals.
📌 Example (Nursery Rhyme):
Mary HAD a LITtle LAMB, its FLEECE was WHITE as SNOW.
I EAT my PEAS with HONey, I’VE DONE so ALL my LIFE.
🧐 How does stress affect comprehension in English?
✅ Stress patterns help listeners distinguish key information. Non-native speakers who do not follow stress-timing may sound unnatural or be harder to understand.
📌 Example:
Incorrect: I LIKE TO EAT APPLES AND ORANGES. (equal stress on all words)
Correct: I LIKE to EAT APPLES and ORANGES. (natural stress pattern)
🧐 Why is stress important in connected speech?
✅ It helps convey meaning, rhythm, and emphasis, making speech more natural and intelligible.
📌 Example: People who have NEVER been to ENGLAND beFORE, and THINK their ENGLISH is GOOD, often ASK themselves WHY the MAN in the STREET DOESN’T underSTAND them.
What is the main difference between English and Spanish accentuation?
In Spanish, there is a tendency to put the accent on the penultimate syllable, while in English, the accent is often on the first syllable.
📌Example: In Spanish, “cárcel” (prison) has the accent on the first syllable, while in English “apple” has the accent on the first syllable
What is a nuclear accent? 🎤
The nuclear accent is the most important accent within an intonation phrase (IP), marking the syllable that carries the main stress.
📌Example: In “I want to buy a ‘lemon,” the word “lemon” has the nuclear accent.
How do we identify a stressed syllable in English? 📚
A stressed syllable is the one that carries lexical stress and is crucial for the word’s pronunciation.
📌Example: In “re’cord (verb) vs. ‘record (noun), the stress is on different syllables.
What types of words are typically accented in English? 🙌
Content words (nouns, adjectives, main verbs, and adverbs) are usually accented, while function words (prepositions, pronouns) are not.
📌Example: “I ‘want to go to the ‘park.” Here, “want,” “go,” and “park” are content words that are accented.
Where is the nucleus usually placed in an intonation phrase? 🎯
The nucleus is commonly located on the last content word of the intonation phrase.
📌Example: In “I can’t ‘hear you,” the nucleus is on “hear.”
What happens to the nucleus if the intonation phrase ends with a function word? ⏳
If the phrase ends with a function word, the nucleus is usually placed on the nearest content word earlier in the phrase.
📌Example: In “That’s not my ‘fault,” “fault” is the last content word, and that’s where the nucleus is.
Can the nucleus be located on a compound word? 🔗
Yes, when a compound word is involved, the nucleus usually lies on the stressed syllable of the first element of the compound.
📌Example: In “It’s a ‘toothbrush,” the stress is on “tooth.”
What is the difference between a compound and a phrase? 📏
A compound has one main lexical stress (e.g., “toothbrush”), while a phrase has separate stresses for each word (e.g., “yellow toothbrush”).
📌Example: “running shoes” is a compound, while “a good pair of shoes” is a phrase.
How do we find the nucleus of a sentence? 🧠
Start from the end of the intonation phrase and move backwards, ignoring function words until you find the last content word.
📌Example: In “I want to ‘buy a ‘car,” we would ignore “a” and find the nucleus on “buy.”
What is the default tonicity rule in English? ✔️
The default rule is to place the nucleus on the last lexical item in the intonation phrase unless there is a reason to choose otherwise.
📌Example: In “I’m going to the ‘party,” the nucleus is on “party.”
What are function words? 🔌
Function words are words that have grammatical purposes but little lexical meaning; they include articles, pronouns, and auxiliary verbs.
📌 Example: “the,” “is,” and “can” are function words that typically do not carry the nuclear accent.
What are content words? 🍎
Content words are words that hold meaning and include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. They carry the nuclear accent in sentences.
📌 Example: “Dog,” “happy,” and “run” are all content words that you would accent in speech.
What role does the nuclear tone play in speech? 🎵
The nuclear tone signals the end of an intonation phrase and can be a fall, rise, or fall-rise. It emphasizes the importance of the information conveyed.
📌 Example: In the statement “I ‘love ice cream,” a rising tone at “cream” indicates enthusiasm.
How does the syllable structure affect accentuation in English and Spanish?
In general, English prefers to place accents on the first syllable of words, while Spanish often places it on the penultimate syllable, especially in longer words.
📌 Example: English “po’tato” vs. Spanish “po’tato” (both have different syllable stress patterns).
How do nested compounds behave in terms of nuclear accent? 📦
In nested compounds, the nuclear accent still goes on the first element of the outer compound, maintaining the single-stressed nature.
📌 Example: In “credit card bill,” the stress is on “credit.”
Can there be more than one accent in an intonation phrase? 🔔
Yes, there can be multiple accents; however, only one will be the nuclear accent, which is the last accent in the phrase. Other accents are called prenuclear.
📌 Example: In “I ‘really want to ‘go,” “really” is prenuclear while “go” carries the nuclear accent.
How should we handle acronyms and letters in regard to nuclear accent?
In a sequence of letters or acronyms, the nuclear accent usually goes on the last letter or numeral.
📌 Example: In “I live at 2 ‘A,” the stress is on “A.”
What is lexical stress? 📖
Lexical stress refers to the stress that is inherent to a specific word and is typically indicated in dictionaries. Understanding where the stress falls in a word is vital for correct pronunciation.
📌 Example: The word “con’verse” (to talk) has stress on the second syllable, while “’converse” (the opposite) has stress on the first syllable.
What happens to the nucleus when an intonation phrase ends with a conjunction? 🔗
If the INT ends with a conjunction, the nucleus typically goes on the last content word before the conjunction.
📌 Example: In “I want cookies and ‘cream,” the nucleus is on “cream,” as it’s the last content word before the conjunction “and.”
How can context influence word accentuation? ⚖️
Context can shift the placement of the nuclear accent due to emphasis or contrast. Contrastive stress may alter which word receives the nuclear accent based on meaning.
📌 Example: In “I wanted green apples, not ‘red,” the emphasis changes the nuclear accent to “red,” indicating a contrast.
What is the general rule for accenting new and old information in English?
The general rule is that new information is accented, while old information is deaccented (loses its potential accent).
📝 Example:
New info: Yes madam? ‘ I’d ‘like a gin and ‘tonic. 🍸
Old info: How about a gin and tonic? ‘ Oh, I’d pre’fer a ‘@lka and tonic.
Here, “tonic” is old information because it was already mentioned, so it gets deaccented.
Where is the nucleus placed in an intonation phrase?📍
The nucleus is placed on the last lexical item that contains new information.
📝 Example:
New info: Did you see Peter and Jackie? ‘ No, but I saw Floyd and ‘Jackie.
Old info: Was that French and Spanish? ‘ No, ‘German and Spanish.
Why don’t we accent words that are repeated?
Because they are old information. If a word has already been mentioned, it gets deaccented.
📝 Example:
✅ D’you object to dogs? ‘ No, I a’DORE dogs. 🐕
❌ (wrong) D’you object to dogs? ‘ No, I a’dore ‘DOGS.
Do we always accent new words, even if they contain new information?
No, we often deaccent words even if they technically contain new information when their meaning is predictable.
📝 Example:
✅ a ‘green chair and a ‘blue chair 🪑
❌ (wrong) a ‘green chair and a blue ‘stain
What happens when we repeat information using synonyms?
The repeated concept is deaccented because it is old information.
📝 Example:
Shall we wash the clothes? ‘ Oh, I ‘hate doing the ‘laundry. 👕
Shall we walk there? ‘ Yes, I ‘like going on ‘foot. 🚶
How do you apply nucleus placement in real conversations?
The nucleus falls on the last new lexical item, and repeated words are deaccented.
📝 Example:
Shall we have the beef curry? ‘ No, let’s have the ‘veggie curry. 🍛
Would you like red wine? ‘ I’d rather have ‘white wine. 🍷
Do you drink your coffee with sugar? ‘ No, with’out sugar. ☕
Why do we accent predictable words like “o’clock” or “hours”?
Even though they are predictable from context, they are still considered new lexical items.
📝 Example:
What’s the time? ‘ It’s ‘five o’clock. ⏰
How long did the concert last? ‘ ‘Three hours. 🎵
What happens when a word is a hypernym or a hyponym?
Hypernyms (broader category) are deaccented.
📝 Do you like whist? ‘ Oh, I like ‘most card games. 🃏
Hyponyms (more specific word) are accented.
📝 Do you like games? ‘ Well, I’m ‘quite fond of ‘football. ⚽
Why do we accent words like “day” and “meal” even when they are obvious?
Because they have not been explicitly mentioned before in the conversation.
📝 Example:
(seeing the sun) What a ‘lovely day! ☀️
(after eating) What a de’licious meal that was! 🍽️
What is broad focus in tonicity?
Broad focus means the entire intonation phrase (IP) is in focus. It happens in neutral tonicity, where the nucleus is on the last lexical item.
👉 Example:
Q: What happened?
A: Everyone burst out laughing. 🎭
What is narrow focus?
Narrow focus highlights only part of an utterance. The nucleus marks the end of the focus domain.
👉 Example:
Q: Who brought the wine? 🍷
A: Mary brought the wine.
How does narrow focus work when repeating old information?
Old information is de-accented, while the new important word gets the nucleus.
👉 Example:
Q: Who went with him?
A: His brother did. 👬
What role does the nucleus play in focus?
The nucleus marks the end of the focus domain. It helps determine whether focus is broad or narrow.
👉 Example:
Q: What did Mary bring?
A: She brought the wine. 🍾
What is contrastive focus?
It is a type of narrow focus that highlights a contrast between two elements.
👉 Example:
You may have started your essay, but have you finished it? 📝
How can function words carry nuclear stress in contrastive focus?
Any word, including pronouns and prepositions, can take nuclear stress if it’s being contrasted.
👉 Example:
I know what Peter wants, but what do you want? 🤨
Can there be multiple contrasts in one sentence?
Yes! There can be a double contrast, for example, between subjects and scores in a football match.
👉 Example:
Arsenal three, Fulham one. ⚽🏆
What happens when we expand a narrow-focus answer?
The nucleus remains in the same place while we add more words.
👉 Example:
Q: Who’s bringing the food?
A: Mary. → Mary is. → Mary’s bringing the food. 🍽️
How can context help determine focus?
Sometimes, intonation alone isn’t enough. Context tells us where the focus is.
👉 Example:
She drives a Ford Fiesta. 🚗
Could answer: “Tell me about her” (broad focus) OR “What kind of car does she drive?” (narrow focus).
What is the difference between a broad-focus and a narrow-focus response?
A broad-focus response answers a general question, while a narrow-focus response highlights a specific element.
👉 Example:
Broad: What did you do today? → We painted the kitchen. 🎨
Narrow: Which room did you paint? → We painted the kitchen.
What is the primary difference in accentuation between English and Spanish in two-syllable words?
🎵❓
In English, the accent can fall on either syllable, but in Spanish, it usually falls on the second syllable (penultimate).
Example:
English: TAble /ˈteɪ.bəl/ (first syllable)
Spanish: ma’le (second syllable)
How does the accentuation change in three-syllable words in Spanish?
📊✍️
In Spanish, the accent is typically on the penultimate syllable, while English often places it on the first syllable.
Example:
English: PROfessor /prəˈfɛs.ər/ (first syllable)
Spanish: ma’ravilla (penultimate syllable)
What is the nucleus in an intonation phrase?
🔍🎤
The nucleus is the last accented syllable in an intonation phrase, indicating the most important word for meaning.
Example:
In “I want to buy a LEmon,” the nucleus is on “LEmon.”
What are content words and function words?
📚⚙️
Content words include nouns, adjectives, and main verbs; they carry meaning. Function words include pronouns and prepositions, serving grammatical purposes.
Example:
Content: Table, happy, run
Function: and, but, at
When do we place the nucleus on a personal pronoun?
🔁👤
We accent a pronoun only when it is in contrastive focus.
Example:
“I know how you feel, but how do you feel?” (here, “you” is in focus).
How is the nuclear accent placed in the context of indefinite pronouns?
🔑❓
Indefinite pronouns can receive the nuclear accent for emphasis, especially to indicate negation.
Example:
“I can’t see anyone.” (normal) vs. “I can’t see ANYONE!” (emphasizing that no one was seen).
What happens to the nucleus when a sentence has new information?
🆕📣
The nucleus usually goes on the new or last lexical item in the phrase.
Example:
“I saw him in the park.” (nucleus on “park”).
How do we deal with contrastive focus in speech?
🔄🗣️
Contrastive focus can override normal stress patterns, where we emphasize the repeated material.
Example:
“She was wearing a green dress.” “Oh, not green; it was blue.”
Why do we assign accents to possessive pronouns or demonstratives in final position?
🏷️📍
They often convey new information and attract the nucleus as they imply contrast with other possessives.
Example:
“Which one is yours?” (nucleus on “yours”).
When do reflexive pronouns receive a nuclear accent?
🔄⚠️
Reflexive pronouns are typically accented for emphasis, especially to signify a point of view.
Example:
“I did it all by MYSELF!” (emphasizing “myself”).
What is polarity in terms of focus?
⚖️🔄
Polarity refers to the quality of being either positive or negative in a verb’s form. In focus, this can determine which part of a sentence is stressed based on the assertion being made.
Example:
“You didn’t take my book!” (denying the action with focus on “didn’t”).
How does emphasizing a negative statement work?
❌🔍
When denying a positive assertion, the focus often goes on the negation itself or the auxiliary verb indicating negation. This is known as a marked negative.
Example:
“I think they’ll just surrender.” → “They won’t surrender!” (focus on “won’t”).
What is a marked positive in focus?
🔆📢
A marked positive occurs when we focus on the auxiliary or modal verb in a negative context to indicate the truth of a positive statement.
Example:
“You’re not involved.” → “Oh, but I AM involved!” (focus on “am”).
How is focus used with the pro-form ‘do’?
🆗🚀
The pro-form ‘do’ receives focus to signal a change in polarity, either from positive to negative or vice versa.
Example:
“He promised he would finish it, but he did.” (focus on “did” indicates the action was completed).
What happens when denying a negative proposition?
⛔️🔄
In such cases, the FOCUS shifts to the AUXILIARY or MODAL VERB to EMPHASIZE the positive aspect being asserted.
Example:
“You didn’t bring an umbrella.” → “I did bring an umbrella.” (focus on “did”).
How does focus change when there’s a new lexical item following a negation?
🔗📅
If the negation is followed by a new lexical item, the nucleus typically goes on that new item instead of the negation word.
Example:
“Have some more milk.” → “I don’t want any more milk.” (focus on “milk” as new information).
How is tense emphasized in spoken English?
⏳🔍
Focus is placed on auxiliary or modal verbs to indicate the tense being discussed, clarifying whether it’s past, present, or future.
Example:
“I used to play tennis.” (focus on “used” signals the past).
Can focus occur on function words like auxiliaries?
🔑✨
Yes, focus can often land on function words like auxiliaries or modals when emphasizing contrast or clarifying meaning.
Example:
“I haven’t done the washing yet, but I will.” (focus on “will” to indicate future intention).
What should we notice about repeated words in focused sentences?
🔄🔄
In focused sentences, it is common to omit repeated words, as the focus can be clear without redundancy.
Example:
“Are you a vegetarian?” → “Well, I used to be [a vegetarian].”
What is the overall impact of contrastive focus in sentences?
📐🗣️
Contrastive focus often leads to changes in the regular stress patterns and can highlight unexpected information or correct misunderstandings, leading to clearer communication.
Example:
“I thought she was coming.” → “Oh, she isn’t!” (focus on “isn’t” clarifies).
How is ambiguity resolved in focus and intonation?
🔍❓
Ambiguity can be clarified through appropriate focus and intonation, which indicates the intended meaning of a statement.
Example:
“Well, I’ll make a donation if you do.” vs. “Well, I’ll make a donation if you organize a collection.”
What role does intonation play in correcting statements?
📉📈
Intonation often involves a fall-rising tone when correcting statements, indicating a change or contrast in the response.
Example:
“Lawrence didn’t pass the test, though all of us did.” (focus on the correction).
How can emphasis be added to exclamations?
🔊💬
Focus can be applied to emphasize exclamatory sentences, often highlighting the contrast implicitly.
Example:
“You have done well!” (emphasis on “have” adds excitement).
What is a common pattern when focusing on subjects and polarity?
🧩🔄
In sentences with both subject focus and polarity contrast, English may focus on the subject rather than emphasizing the polarity word.
Example:
“I don’t like Beethoven.” → “Well, I do!” (focus on “I”).
How does the vection of intonation signal a shift in meaning?
🔄⚙️
Shifts in polarity through intonation can signal a change in meaning, particularly when contrasting past and present actions.
Example:
“I used to play tennis.” (focus on “used” signals a past action).
