Unit 2 Revision Flashcards
(94 cards)
1
Q
What are heuristics?
A
Heuristics are mental shortcuts used to make quicker and more efficient decisions.
Heuristics are decisions that are made without critically evaluating it first.
2
Q
What are positives of heuristics?
A
They reduce cognitive load that is normally required in decision making
Snap judgements can be made that save time and mental effort
3
Q
What are the 3 types of heuristics?
A
Availability, Representative and Affect
4
Q
The Availability Heuristic
A
A mental shortcut in which we use the information that we first think of to make a judgement. Information is readily available or easy to imagine
5
Q
The Representative Heuristic
A
A mental shortcut in decision-making where we estimate the likelihood of something occurring or being true based on its similarity to our existing understanding and expectations about the world.
6
Q
The Affect Heuristic
A
An approach that is used when decision-making is influenced by an individual’s current emotional state or mood
“Going with your gut”
7
Q
What is prejudice?
A
The negative preconceived notion that we hold towards individuals due to their membership in a particular group.
8
Q
What is discrmination?
A
The action of being prejudiced or treating others in an unfair manner based on the negative attitude held about that person or the group to which they belong.
9
Q
What is direct discrimination?
A
A person or group is treated less favourably than another person or group because of their background or certain personal characteristics.
10
Q
What is indirect discrimination?
A
An unreasonable rule or policy that is the same for everyone but has an unfair effect on a particular group.
11
Q
Forms of discrimination
A
Sexism, Racism, Agism
12
Q
How can you reduce prejudice?
A
Intergroup contact, sustained contact, superordinate goals
13
Q
What is a group?
A
A group is formed when two or -more people:interact, influence each and
share a common objective/goal
14
Q
What is status?
A
Status refers to a person’s position in the hierarchy of a group. A person’s status can determine their degree of influence over others
15
Q
What is social power?
A
Social power refers to the amount of influence that an individual can exert over another person. In general, the higher a person’s status, the more power they exert
16
Q
What are the different types of power?
A
Reward power, Coercive Power, Legitimate Power, Referent Power, Expert Power
17
Q
What is Reward Power?
A
Ability to give positive consequences or remove negative consequences in response to specific behavior.
18
Q
What is Coercive Power?
A
Ability to give negative consequences or remove positive consequences in response to specific behaviour
19
Q
What is Legitimate Power?
A
An individual’s status or position in a group, institution or society in general gives them the right (authority) to exercise power over those with a lower status or with less authority.
20
Q
What is Referent Power?
A
Individuals identify with or want to be like or liked by this person.
21
Q
What is Expert Power?
A
Having special knowledge and skills that are desirable or needed
22
Q
What is obedience?
A
Obedience occurs when people change their behaviour in response to direct commands from others.
Examples: picking up rubbish when asked, despite not dropping it.
Obedience requires direct commands, and it is more direct and less subtle than social power.
23
Q
What is social proximity?
A
Social proximity refers to the distance between the person giving orders and the person affected.
24
Q
What is Legitimacy of Authority?
A
Legitimacy of authority is when people assign authority to an individual and are obedient to their instructions.
25
What is conformity?
Conformity occurs in situations in which individuals change their behaviour as the result of real or implied pressure from others.
26
What are some factors that affect conformity?
Group size, Uniaminty, Informational Influence
27
What is unanimity?
We are more likely to conform when other members of the group behave in the same way.
28
What is group size?
Our conformity increases as the group size expands from two to four, then stays at similar levels of conformity in a group of eight.
29
What is informational influence
We look at the behavior of others to guide us in whether we should behave in a similar way.
30
Social Connections
Strong social connections have a beneficial effect on our mental health because they help foster
empathy,
higher self-esteem
the development of trusting relationships
31
What is the social comparison theory?
It suggests that to gain an accurate understanding of who we are, we have a drive to make decisions, evaluations and judgements about ourselves in relation to those around us.
32
What is upward social comparison?
We compare ourselves to those we view as superior or that have positive traits
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What is downward social comparison?
We compare ourselves to those we view as inferior or possessing negative characteristics
34
What is lateral social comparison?
We compare ourselves
to those we view more or less as our equals.
35
What is independence?
Independence occurs when an individual is aware of how the group expects them to behave or respond, but their decision-making is not swayed in any way by the expectations of the group. Instead, they reject the views or norms of the group in order to arrive at their own objective decision.
36
What is anti-conformity?
Deliberate refusal to comply with social norms as demonstrated by ideas, beliefs or judgements that challenge these social norms. Anti-conformity is not a genuine attempt to express one's ideas of perspectives. It comes from a desire to be stubborn or rebellious.
37
What is playing devil's advocate?
The role of the devil's advocate is to actively argue against the points of group members, even if they share the same beliefs as the group members.
38
What is attention in perception?
Largely depends on what we 'select' and how much focus/attention we direct to it
39
What are key features of attention?
It is part of out higher (executive) thinking and decision making process.
We are able to 'tune out' irrelevant information and focus on what is important
40
How do we select stimuli?
It's unusual, intense, unexpected or stands out from its surroundings
We are motivated to or expect to encounter a particular stimulus
41
What is controlled process?
Controlled processes involve information processing requiring conscious, alert awareness and mental effort in which the individual actively focuses their attention on achieving a particular goal.
42
What is automatic processing?
Automatic processing requires little conscious awareness and mental effort, minimal attention and do not interfere with the performance of some activities.
43
What are the three types of attention?
Sustained, Divided and Selective
44
What is sustained attention?
Deep focus. Beneficial in learning new tasks/things
45
What is divided attention?
Often referred to as multi-tasking. You don't change from one task to another. Instead, you try and perform both tasks at the same time. Necessary for responding to important daily events.
46
What is selective attention?
Choose to focus on a specific range of stimuli and ignore others. Can be intentional. Can be automatic.
47
What is visual sensation and what does it involve?
Visual Sensation: is being aware of a visual stimulus. It involves:
Reception
Transduction
Transmission
48
What is visual perception and what does it involve?
Visual Perception: is giving meaning to a visual stimulus. It involves
Selection
Organization
Interpretation
49
What is reception? (Sensation)
Reception: Taking the stimulus in
Sensory receptors in sense organs detect and respond to external stimulus energy
50
What is transduction? (Sensation)
Transduction: Converting the stimulus
The human sense organs take in 5 different forms of energy. Therefore, transduction must occur, where the sensory receptors convert the stimulus energy into electrochemical energy.
51
What is transmission? (Sensation)
Transmission: From the receptor site to brain. The electrochemically charged neural impulses leave their receptor site and travel along specific neural pathways that connect to a specialized part of the brain.
52
What is selection? (Perception)
Selection: Filtering information
The brain filters the stimuli through a process of selective attention.
Important features are selected for further processing. Unimportant features are ignored and receive no further processing
53
What is organization? (Perception)
Organization: Creating a whole
The grouping of elements or features of stimuli to form a whole that can be given meaning. The brain assembles the selected impulses into a pattern or form that can be recognized
54
What is interpretation? (Interpretation)
Interpretation: Understanding the stimuli
The brain interprets these patterns or wholes and gives them meaning so we know what they represent in the external world.
55
What is perception?
Perception is a psychological activity that gives meaning to the stimuli our sense organs detect that helps us understand the world. Perception occurs in the brain.
56
What are the two basic types of processing?
Bottom-Up processing and Top-down Processing
57
What is bottom-up processing?
We receive sensory information and do not rely on prior experience to interpret it. Built upward. Start from the sensory information and work from there
Starts with processing low level features (tiny details). Experience the stimulus first analyse it later.
58
What is top-down processing?
Using pre-existing knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory information. Brain formulates a perceptual hypothesis based on what we know and anticipates what will come next (an educated guess).
59
What are schemas?
Concepts which assist us in identifying patterns in new stimuli so we may quickly organize sensory data to create a meaningful perception
60
What is the bio-psycho-social approach?
This approach says that there is an interaction between biological, psychological and social factors which influence our perception.
61
What are some biological factors? (Bio-psycho-social approach)
Focus on physical and genetic factors that can influence vision:
Genetics
Age
Binocular and Monocular Depth Cues
Pictorial Depth Cues
62
What are some psychological factors? (Bio-psycho-social approach)
Visual perception principles- Gestalt and Visual Constancies
Perceptual Set
63
What is depth perception?
Is the process of perceiving the world in three dimensions, despite the two-dimensional retinal image we receive
Is achieved through the use of depth cues, which are sources of information from within our body (primary or internal cues) or the environment (secondary or external cues)
64
What are the categories for depth perception?
Binocular Depth Cues and Monocular Depth Cues
65
Binocular Depth Cues
Requires the combined information from both eyes. Convergence and retinal disparity.
66
Monocular Depth Cues
Requires information from one eye only, that is, each eye can operate independently of the other eye. Accommodation and pictorial depth cues.
67
Binocular- Convergence
Involves both eyes simultaneously turning inwards as an object moves closer (within approximately 7 metres) in order to maintain focus on the object.
The greater the tension, the closer the object
68
Binocular- Retinal Disparity
As our eyes are 6-7 centimetres apart, each retina receives a slightly different view of the visual image.
The brain combines the two images and uses the differences to judge distance:
The greater the disparity (difference), the closer the object
69
Monocular- Accommodation
Involves the ciliary muscles attached to the lens in each eye voluntarily or involuntarily relaxing or contracting to alter the shape of each lens in each eye so it can focus on objects at varying distances.
When an object is close (within approximately 3 metres), the ciliary muscles contract so your lens bulges and stays focused on the object.
70
Monocular- Pictorial Depth Cues
Are depth cues that can be represented pictorially on a 2D surface.
*artists use them to create depth and distance on 2D surfaces such as paper.
71
Pictorial Depth Cues (Examples)
Linear Perspective, Texture Gradient, Interposition, Relative Size and Height in the Visual Field
72
Linear Perspective
Parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance to an imaginary vanishing point (where they theoretically come together) at the horizon.
73
Interposition
Closer objects will partially block the images of the further away objects.
Consequently, we perceive complete images to be closer than partially obscured objects.
74
Texture Gradient
Close stimuli are perceived as more textured. Consequently, we perceive objects with little detail as being further away than objects with great detail
75
Relative Size
Refers to the tendency to perceive the object that casts the larger retinal image as closer than the object that casts a smaller retinal image
Assumes that the two objects are similar in size
76
Height in the Visual Field
Objects located closer to the horizon are perceived as being more distant than objects further from the horizon
Objects below the horizon, such as animals, trees and cars, are perceived as getting further away when their images move higher in the visual field.
77
Psychological Influences
Focus on our brain making sense of information by automatically applying ‘rules’ to interpret visual stimuli.
78
Two main psychological influences on vision
Visual perception principles - ‘rules’ we automatically apply to organise and interpret visual information. This includes Gestalt and visual constancies.
Perceptual set – which leads us to see what we expect to see.
79
Gestalt Principles
Are ‘rules’ that the brain automatically uses to organize visual perceptual features into a meaningful whole or complete form by the simplest possible method.
The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
80
What do Gestalt Principles Include?
Figure Ground, Similarity, Closure and Proximity
81
What is closure? (Gestalt Principles)
A tendency for incomplete elements in sensory information (or in the picture) to be ignored or mentally fill in gaps.
mentally grouping or perceiving the elements (of the picture) as a meaningful whole or complete figure.
82
What is similarity? (Gestalt Principles)
Tendency to perceive elements or parts of a visual stimulus that have similar features (such as shape, size and colour) as forming a group, pattern, or a ‘meaningful unit’.
83
What is proximity? (Gestalt Principles)
Tendency to perceive elements or parts of a visual stimulus that have similar features (such as shape, size and color) as forming a group, pattern, or a ‘meaningful unit’.
84
What are visual constancies?
A group of perception principles that allow us to view objects as unchanging in terms of their actual size, shape, brightness and orientation regardless of changes to the image the object casts on the retina.
Four visual constancies that affect our interpretation of visual stimuli include:
Size
Shape
Brightness
Orientation
85
What is perceptual set?
The readiness or predisposition to perceive stimuli in a particular way according to expectation. Factors that contribute to perceptual set include;
Past experience
Context
Motivation and emotional experience
Memory
86
What are visual illusions?
Visual Illusions are consistent perceptual mistakes or perceptual distortion in interpreting a real sensory stimulus; that is, the perception consistently does not match the visual stimulus on the retina.
87
What is agnosia?
Agnosia is a rare condition caused by a neurological disorder or damage to parts of the brain.
It occurs when a person’s perceptual processing is impaired, which limits their ability to make sense of sensory information.
They can't recognize and identify objects, people, smells or sounds despite their senses working normally
88
What is visual agnosia?
Visual agnosia is a loss of visual knowledge. The brain therefore can't access the stored information needed for perception
89
What are the causes of agnosia?
Agnosia is caused by damage along pathways that connect primary sensory processing areas in the brain (including the parietal, occipital and temporal lobes).
90
Characteristics of visual agnosia?
Being unable to recognize faces but able to recognize other objects
seeing multiple objects but only recognizing one object at a time
being unable to name or describe familiar objects when looking at them.
91
What is prosopagnosia?
Prosopagnosia (also known as face blindness) is a form of associative visual agnosia.
People with this disorder can't recognize familiar faces (sometimes their own), facial differences, identify a person by name, or even whether they have seen them before!
92
What is perception distortion?
Occurs when a person’s response to environmental stimuli is different from what is considered the normal response.
93
What is Synesthesia?
Refers to a group of neurological conditions where information taken in by one sense is involuntarily experienced in a way normally associated with another sense.
94
What is spatial neglect?
Spatial neglect is when a person tends to ignore the left or right side of their body or the left or right side of their visual space.
Spatial neglect is a cognitive impairment not a visual impairment.
