Unit 2: Research Methods: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science

Question 1

hindsight bias

Answer 1

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

Question 2

critical thinking

Answer 2

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

Question 3

theory

Answer 3

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Question 4

hypothesis

Answer 4

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Question 5

operational definition

Answer 5

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

Question 6

replication

Answer 6

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with difference participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Question 7

case study

Answer 7

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Question 8

survey

Answer 8

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Question 9

good theories explain by

Answer 9

(1) organizing and linking observed facts, and

(2) implying hypothesis that offer testable predictions and, sometimes, practical applications

Question 10

population

Answer 10

all the cases in a group being studies, from which samples may be drawn (note: except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population)

Question 11

random sample

Answer 11

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Question 12

naturalistic observation

Answer 12

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Question 13

correlation

Answer 13

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Question 14

correlation coefficient

Answer 14

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Question 15

scatterplot

Answer 15

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)

Question 16

illusory correlation

Answer 16

the perception of a relationship where none exists

Question 17

experiment

Answer 17

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

Question 18

random assignment

Answer 18

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Question 19

double-blind procedure

Answer 19

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

Question 20

placebo effect

Answer 20

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

Question 21

experimental group

Answer 21

in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

Question 22

control group

Answer 22

in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Question 23

independent variable

Answer 23

the experimental factor that is manipulated;the variable whose effect is being studied

Question 24

confounding variable

Answer 24

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

Question 25

dependent variable

Answer 25

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

Question 26

mean

Answer 26

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Question 27

median

Answer 27

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Question 28

range

Answer 28

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Question 29

standard deviation

Answer 29

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score (the square root of (sum of [deviations^2])/(number of scores))

Question 30

normal curve

Answer 30

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes

Question 31

statistical significance

Answer 31

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Question 32

culture

Answer 32

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Question 33

informed consent

Answer 33

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Question 34

debriefing

Answer 34

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants